Revolt of 1857: India’s First War of Independence Explained

One of the greatest revolts which was took place against the British colonial rule in India is the Revolt of 1857. This revolt, also known as the Indian Uprising of 1857 or the Indian Rebellion of 1857, it started with a mutiny of sepoys at Meerut on May 10th, 1857. This mutiny later turned into a rebellion involving rulers, peasants, soldiers, zamindars and others.

The rebellion was successfully subdued by the British in 1858, but its repercussions were enormous. It resulted to the end of the East India Company rule and to India becoming a part of the British Crown. It also resulted in fundamental changes in the way British ruled.

What was the Revolt of 1857?

The revolt began with the Indian soldiers, who were known as sepoys, serving in the East India Company’s army. The revolt soon spread to cities such as Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Gwalior and some places in Bihar.

The revolt has been given different names through history. In English literature, it has been referred to as the Sepoy Mutiny or the Indian Mutiny, while the terms ‘Indian Rebellion of 1857’ or ‘Great Rebellion’ have also been used to describe the event.

In his book “The Indian War of Independence”, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar used the term “First War of Independence”.

Though the revolt did not cover the entire territory of India, it is considered to be the most dangerous threat to the East India Company rule before then.

Causes of the Revolt of 1857

This revolt was not the result of any one particular incident, but political expansion, economic exploitation, social and religious tension and military issues were accumulated for years. The issue of greased cartridges was the final trigger.

Political reasons

The expansionist policy of the British resulted in insecurity among Indian rulers and aristocratic families.

Under the Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Governor-General Dalhousie, the East India Company annexed certain princely states where a ruler died without a legitimate heir whose succession the British recognized.

The states that were annexed under this policy include Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur.

The annexation of Awadh in 1856, which the British justified on account of poor governance, created especially much discontent. Many nobles, officials, soldiers and retainers were deprived of their posts and privileges.

Another reason of the growing resentment against the British was the refusal of recognizing the successor of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi.

Economic Causes

The British economic policies put enormous pressure on peasants, artisans and traditional elite class.

High taxes and stringent methods of revenue collection resulted in hardships for peasants and zamindars, those who failed to pay their tax had to either lose their land or be under obligation of the money lenders.

On the other hand, there was severe competition in the traditional Indian handicraft industries due to cheap industrial products of Britain after Industrial Revolution. The textile industry and other artisan class had been greatly affected by that, resulting in unemployment and economic difficulties.

The economic problems of the villages also impacted the sepoys as most of the soldiers belonged to peasant community and thus were closely connected with the villages.

Social and Religious Causes

British social and religious policies created a sense of suspicion amongst the Indian people.

For example, social reforms like banning of Sati and widow remarriage was seen by some conservative elements of the society as interference in their social practices. Introduction of western education and Christian missionary works also led to a fear that British was out to convert Indians into Christians and destroy Indian religions.

Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 which assured property rights for any converts raised controversy in the era of suspicion.

Even modern inventions like railway and telegraph were looked upon with suspicion because of their association with colonial government.

Military factors

This rebellion arose due to serious discontent among members of the Bengal Army.

While the Indian soldiers formed a majority in the army of the Company, they suffered discrimination regarding salaries, promotions and services vis-à-vis European soldiers.

The Indian soldiers were also worried about having to serve outside India. In 1856, the General Service Enlistment Act led to fears among some Indian soldiers of being compelled to serve overseas, a concern that had religious ramifications for some groups.

The long-standing grievance among the military helped create a situation whereby a relatively minor problem would lead to a greater uprising.

Immediate Cause Greased cartridges

The immediate reason for the rebellion was the introduction of the Enfield rifle and issues concerning its cartridges.

There was a rumor that the cartridges were greased using cow and pig fat. Soldiers had to break the cartridge by biting the bullet before using it in the rifle. This violated the beliefs of Hindus and Muslims.

The issue created greater distrust between the sepoys and their officers who were British.

At Barrackpore, Mangal Pandey assaulted the officers in March 1857 after refusing to use the cartridges. He was later executed on 8 April 1857.

At Meerut, 85 sepoys refused to use the cartridges and received imprisonment as a penalty. In May 1857, the other sepoys mutinied and freed their imprisoned friends before marching towards Delhi.

The revolt had started.

Revolt Centres and Leaders

Delhi – Bahadur Shah Zafar

• The rebels reached Delhi and approached the symbolic legitimacy of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last emperor of Mughal.
• Even though he was old and powerless, his connection with the Mughal throne provided a significant symbolic center for the revolt.

Kanpur – Nana Saheb

• The rebellion at Kanpur was led by Nana Saheb who was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• His grievances were somewhat related to the denial by the British to honor the pension of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• Initially, his forces achieved success but he was unable to hold Kanpur against the British forces that reinforced there.
• His general Tantia Tope led the struggle after his disappearance.

Lucknow – Begum Hazrat Mahal

• Begum Hazrat Mahal, connected to the dethroned Nawab of Awadh, was a major figure among the leaders of the revolt in Lucknow.
• The annexation of Awadh caused resentment in many quarters and thus helped to raise the revolt among the soldiers, the landlords, and people.

Jhansi – Rani Lakshmibai

• Among the many leaders of the revolt, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi was one of the best-known ones.
• Her grievances arose because the British denied her adopted son any rights to succeed and Jhansi was thus subjected to the doctrine of lapse.
• She fought British forces during the rebellion and ultimately joined hands with Tantia Tope.
• She died fighting the British forces in June 1858 at Gwalior.

Bihar – Kunwar Singh

• Kunwar Singh, a leading landlord of Jagdispur, spearheaded the revolt in Bihar.
• Notwithstanding his old age, he contributed actively in the revolt and offered resistance to the British till his death in 1858.

Why did the Revolt of 1857 fail?

Though very passionate, the revolt ultimately failed.

Its first major flaw was its confined geographical presence. Southern, western and eastern India was completely untouched by the revolt. Many princely states like Hyderabad, Mysore and Kashmir did not join the revolt.

The second major flaw was the lack of centralised leadership and coordination of strategies. Though the leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope showed great courage and patriotism, there was no single leadership to coordinate the efforts of all the people who were participating in the rebellion.

Besides, the British had military superiority and facilities for communication and logistic support. Telegraphs enabled them to maintain fast communication between places whereas reinforcements could be sent whenever required.

In addition to this, certain sections of the population and princely states were supportive of the British Government.

How was the Revolt Suppressed?

The British gradually wrested control of the major rebel centres.

Delhi was captured back in September 1857. Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested and exiled to Rangoon.

Under the leadership of generals like Sir Colin Campbell and Sir Hugh Rose, British troops managed to recapture important centres like Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi and Gwalior.

Although Tantia Tope continued his guerrilla struggle for some time, he too was finally caught and hanged.

By mid-1858, organized resistance was almost over. Peace was officially declared on 8 July 1858 by Lord Canning.

Results of the Revolt of 1857

The most significant outcome of the revolt was the end of East India Company rule in India.

The Government of India Act, 1858 placed the administration of India under the control of the British crown and not the East India Company. The British crown was thus responsible for India’s government.

The governor-general also became the viceroy, with Lord Canning being the first viceroy of India.

The British gave up the Doctrine of Lapse and promised to honour the right to succession in the Indian princely states which remained loyal to the British crown.

The government also announced its intention to show more consideration for the religious sentiments of the Indians.

Significance of the Revolt of 1857

Although it did not succeed in toppling British supremacy, the Revolt of 1857 turned out to be an important milestone in the modern history of India.

Firstly, it revealed the scale of resentment against Company’s rule in India. Secondly, the participants of the revolt were united in their actions in different locations.

Thirdly, the Revolt of 1857 impacted the evolution of the Indian nationalism. Even though the Indian nationalist movement had not appeared yet, the recollection of the revolt and its protagonists proved to become a significant element of the Indian struggle for independence.

Among them there were Rani Lakshmibai, Mangal Pandey, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, Nana Saheb and Begum Hazrat Mahal.

Books on the Revolt of 1857

Some important books dedicated to the revolt were written from different points of view. These books include The Indian War of Independence by V.D. Savarkar, The Indian Mutiny of 1857 by George Bruce Malleson and Great Mutiny by Christopher Hibbert.

Some more books analyzing the revolt include Rebellion, 1857: A Symposium by Puran Chand Joshi and Religion and Ideology of the Rebels of 1857 by Iqbal Husain.