World’s Oldest Known Wild Bird Lays First Egg at 74

Wisdom, the world’s oldest known wild bird, a Laysan albatross, has once again made history by laying her first egg in four years at the age of 74. Her remarkable achievement highlights her survival instincts, longevity, and ongoing contribution to her species. Wisdom’s story, spanning decades, has made her an iconic figure in wildlife conservation, symbolizing resilience and the delicate balance of nature.

Wisdom’s Age and Record

  • Wisdom is the oldest known wild bird, at 74 years old.
  • She was first banded and identified in 1956, making her at least 74 years old.

Egg-Laying After Four Years

  • Wisdom laid her first egg in four years, demonstrating her reproductive capability despite her advanced age.
  • The egg was laid in the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, located in the Pacific Ocean.

Return to Nesting Site

  • Every year, Wisdom returns to her nesting site on Midway Atoll to reunite with a mate and lay an egg, which is common behavior for the Laysan albatross.
  • She had been reunited with her previous mate, Akeakamai, for many years, but he has not been seen in recent times.

New Mate and Nesting Behavior

  • Wisdom has a new mate, a male albatross who was tagged for future monitoring. 
  • Their interaction appears to be smooth, with Wisdom affectionately rubbing her head against her new partner.
  • The male partner is incubating the egg for about three weeks until Wisdom relieves him.

Past Achievements

  • Wisdom has laid between 50 and 60 eggs over her lifetime and has successfully raised up to 30 chicks.
  • She has continued to follow the instinctual behavior of returning to Midway Atoll to lay eggs and raise chicks for decades.

Conservation Significance

  • Wisdom’s story is significant for wildlife conservation, as it shows the long-term survival and ongoing contribution of one of the world’s oldest known wild birds.
  • Her continued nesting is a positive sign for the species and a reminder of the importance of wildlife refuges like Midway Atoll.
Summary/Static Details
Why in the news? World’s oldest known wild bird lays her first egg in four years at age 74
Species Laysan albatross (Mōlī in Hawaiian)
Record Oldest known wild bird
First Egg After Four Years Wisdom laid her first egg in four years at Midway Atoll
Egg Laying Behavior Returns to the same nesting site each year to lay one egg, typical of the species
Past Mate Previous mate, Akeakamai, hasn’t been seen for years
New Mate Wisdom’s new male partner was tagged for future monitoring and is currently incubating the egg
Reproductive History Wisdom has laid 50-60 eggs and raised 30 chicks
Conservation Significance Wisdom’s continued ability to lay eggs demonstrates her resilience and the value of wildlife conservation efforts on Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge
Monitoring and Optimism Biologists are optimistic that the egg will hatch, and Wisdom’s continued instincts bring “special joy” to wildlife conservation efforts

Which is the Smallest Neighboring Country in the World?

India shares its borders with several countries, but among them, the smallest neighboring country is Bhutan. This tiny kingdom, nestled in the eastern Himalayas, holds a unique place in South Asia due to its rich culture and scenic beauty. Despite its small size, Bhutan plays an important role in the region.

Neighboring Countries of India

India shares its borders with 9 countries in total. Of these, 7 countries have land borders with India, while 2 countries have sea borders with India. Here are the names of neighboring countries of India:

  • Afghanistan
  • Bangladesh
  • Bhutan
  • China
  • Myanmar
  • Nepal
  • Pakistan
  • Sri Lanka
  • Maldives

Smallest Neighboring Country of India

Bhutan is the smallest country that shares a border with India. Despite its small size, Bhutan is known for its natural beauty and unique culture. Here is a look at some important aspects of Bhutan, the smallest neighboring nation of India.

Area and Size of Bhutan

Bhutan has a total area of 38,394 square kilometers. This makes it the smallest neighboring country of India, much smaller than its other neighboring countries like China, Nepal and Bangladesh.

Location of Bhutan

Bhutan is located in the eastern Himalayas. It share borders with India to the south, China to the north and Nepal to the west. The country is famous for its mountainous terrain, which adds to its scenic beauty.

What is Bhutan Famous for?

Bhutan is known for its untouched landscapes. It has lush green forests, high mountains and peaceful rivers. Many visitors are attracted to Bhutan for its nature, wildlife and peaceful environment.

Important Days in December 2024, National and International Days

December, the last month of the year, is a month full of important days that highlight awareness, achievements, and celebrations around the world. These days focus on topics like human rights, environmental protection, and honoring national heroes. From World AIDS Day to Christmas, each date has a special meaning, reminding us of unity, kindness, and responsibility.

Important Days in December 2024

December is a month of joy, celebrations, and meaningful events worldwide. It brings festive cheer, short winter days in the northern hemisphere, and special occasions. Christmas on December 25th, celebrated by over 2.2 billion people, marks the birth of Jesus Christ. Kwanzaa, from December 26th to January 1st, honors African traditions. December ends with New Year’s Eve on the 31st, a global celebration of hope and resolutions. Its name comes from the Latin word “Decem,” meaning ten.

List of Important Days in December 2024, National and International Days

Date Day
01 Dec World AIDS Day
02 Dec International Day for the Abolition of Slavery
03 Dec International Day of Persons with Disabilities
04 Dec International Day of Banks
05 Dec International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social Development
05 Dec World Soil Day
07 Dec International Civil Aviation Day
09 Dec International Day of Commemoration and Dignity of the Victims of the Crime of Genocide and of the Prevention of this Crime
09 Dec International Anti-Corruption Day
10 Dec Human Rights Day
11 Dec International Mountain Day
12 Dec International Day of Neutrality
12 Dec International Universal Health Coverage Day
18 Dec Arabic Language Day
18 Dec International Migrants Day
20 Dec International Human Solidarity Day
21 Dec World Basketball Day
27 Dec International Day of Epidemic Preparedness

 

International Cheetah Day Celebrating the World’s Fastest Land Animal

International Cheetah Day, observed annually on December 4, raises awareness about the challenges faced by cheetahs and promotes global conservation efforts. Established by the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF), the day honors the memory of a cheetah cub named Khayam, rescued by Dr. Laurie Marker, founder of the CCF. Cheetahs, once widespread across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, are now critically endangered, with fewer than 7,000 individuals left in the wild.

History of International Cheetah Day

  • Established by the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF).
  • December 4 commemorates Khayam, an orphaned cheetah cub raised by CCF founder Dr. Laurie Marker.
  • Highlights the historical significance of cheetahs, revered in ancient Egyptian art and as royal hunting companions during the Mughal Empire.

Importance of International Cheetah Day

  • Draws attention to cheetah conservation amidst threats like habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, and illegal wildlife trade.
  • Promotes initiatives such as habitat restoration, breeding programs, anti-poaching efforts, and community education.

Fascinating Facts About Cheetahs

Speed and Acceleration

  • Fastest land mammals, reaching speeds of 70 mph in short bursts.
  • Accelerate from 0 to 60 mph in just a few seconds.
  • Slim, aerodynamic bodies, long legs, and specialized spines enable high speed.
  • Semi-retractable claws provide extra grip during sprints.

Exceptional Vision

  • Can spot prey from distances of up to three miles.
  • Black “tear marks” reduce glare and improve precision hunting during the day.
  • Rely primarily on sight rather than scent for hunting.

Social Behavior

  • Male cheetahs form coalitions, often with brothers, for cooperative hunting and territory defense.
  • Females are solitary, raising cubs alone and teaching survival skills for 18 months.
  • Unique vocalizations: chirps, purrs, and high-pitched meows to communicate.
  • Unlike other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

Threats to Cheetahs

1. Habitat Loss

  • Caused by agriculture expansion, urbanization, and infrastructure development.
  • Loss of hunting grounds leads to smaller, isolated populations.
  • Reduced genetic diversity increases vulnerability to diseases.

2. Human-Wildlife Conflict

  • Farmers kill cheetahs to protect livestock, especially in overlapping territories.
  • Overgrazing by livestock depletes the prey base.

3. Illegal Wildlife Trade

  • Cubs trafficked for exotic pets, disrupting family groups.
  • High mortality rates among trafficked cheetahs.

4. Other Challenges

  • Road collisions in areas with intersecting habitats.
  • Climate change impacts ecosystems, prey availability, and water sources.

Conservation Efforts

  • Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF): Leading global efforts in cheetah conservation.
  • Habitat restoration projects to address habitat loss.
  • Anti-poaching measures to reduce illegal wildlife trade.
  • Community education programs to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts.
  • Research and breeding programs to increase population numbers.

Significance of International Cheetah Day

  • Reminds the world of the urgency to protect cheetahs and their ecosystems.
  • Encourages education, advocacy, and financial support for conservation.
  • Empowers communities to coexist with cheetahs through awareness and sustainable practices.
Summary/Static Details
Why in the news? International Cheetah Day
Date December 4
Established by Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF)
Historical Significance Cheetahs were revered in ancient Egyptian art and used as royal hunting companions in the Mughal Empire
Cheetah Population Fewer than 7,000 cheetahs remain in the wild
Main Threats to Cheetahs 1. Habitat loss (due to agriculture and urbanization)

2. Human-wildlife conflict (farmers killing cheetahs to protect livestock)

3. Illegal wildlife trade (cheetah cubs trafficked as exotic pets)

4. Climate change and road collisions

Conservation Efforts – Habitat restoration

– Breeding programs

– Anti-poaching efforts

– Community education to reduce human-wildlife conflict

Key Facts About Cheetahs – Fastest land mammals, reaching speeds up to 70 mph

– Acceleration from 0 to 60 mph in just a few seconds

– Excellent vision, spotting prey from up to 3 miles

– Social structure: males form coalitions, females are solitary

International Cheetah Day Focus – Education, awareness, and global conservation efforts

– Encourages people to support cheetah conservation through donations and advocacy

Which District of Uttarakhand is Known as the Gateway of Kumaon?

Uttarakhand is a beautiful state in northern India, known for its stunning mountains, forests and spiritual places. It is famous for its hill stations, holy temples and as the gateway to the Himalayas. In this article, we will know about the district of Uttarakhand which is known as the “Gateway of Kumaon.”

An Overview of Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand, formerly known as Uttaranchal, is a state in northern India. It is bordered by Himachal Pradesh, Tibet, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. The state covers an area of 53,483 sq. km and has two divisions: Garhwal and Kumaon. Dehradun, is the capital and Nainital is the judicial capital. The state is rich in forests and is home to the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.

Number of Districts of Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand has 13 districts, which are grouped into two regions: Garhwal and Kumaon. These regions help organize state and for administrative and cultural purposes, with each having its own unique features.

The Gateway of Kumaon

Haldwani, a beautiful town in the Nainital district of Uttarakhand, holds the title of the “Gateway of Kumaon.” This charming town is a popular entry point for travelers heading to the Kumaon region. Its strategic location and stunning surroundings make it a notable spot in the state.

Why is Haldwani Known as the Gateway of Kumaon?

Haldwani is known as the “Gateway of Kumaon” because it is the main entry point for travelers heading to the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand. Located strategically between the Shivalik hills and the Terai region, it serves as a key hub for transportation, making it the first stop for many people exploring the scenic and cultural beauty of Kumaon.

Location of Haldwani

Haldwani lies on the right bank of the Gaula River, nestled between the Shivalik hills and the Terai region of Rudrapur. The town’s position allows visitors to enjoy both the peaceful river views and the lush greenery of the surrounding hills. It is a perfect mix of nature and urban life.

The Origin of the Name Haldwani

The name “Haldwani” comes from the Haldu tree, which was once abundant in the region. These trees were once a significant part of the local landscape, and their presence is reflected in the town’s name.

What is Haldwani Known for?

Haldwani is well-known for its pleasant climate, scenic landscapes and vibrant culture. The town attracts visitors with its pleasant weather throughout the year. It also has a rich history, reflected in its architecture and traditions. Haldwani plays a vital role as a trading hub, making it an important center for business and commerce in the region.

RBI Introduces Podcast Facility for Public Communication

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), under the leadership of Governor Shaktikanta Das, has announced plans to launch a podcast series aimed at enhancing public communication and financial literacy. This initiative marks the RBI’s continued efforts to expand its communication tools, aiming to provide more transparent and accessible information to the public.

Key Developments and Announcements

Podcast Series Launch

  • The RBI plans to introduce podcasts as part of its communication toolkit, aiming for broader dissemination of key information, particularly related to monetary policy and financial literacy.

Monetary Policy Statement

  • During the announcement, the RBI kept its key interest rate unchanged due to inflation risks but reduced the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) to inject more liquidity into the economy and support growth. 
  • This decision was made to address a slowing economy and aid the banking sector.

Enhanced Financial Literacy Initiatives

  • Governor Das emphasized the role of financial literacy tools like the podcast in promoting financial education across diverse sections of society. Last month, the RBI also launched booklets in the Santali (Ol Chik) language, covering financial products, digital banking, and consumer protection, specifically tailored for children, farmers, entrepreneurs, self-help groups, and senior citizens.

Artificial Intelligence Integration

  • The RBI has shown interest in integrating artificial intelligence (AI) in its operations. 
  • A new committee, FREE-AI (Framework for Responsible and Ethical Enablement of AI), is being developed to address AI-related risks in the financial sector.

MuleHunter.AI

  • A new AI-powered tool, MuleHunter.AI, has been developed by the RBI Innovation Hub in Bengaluru to detect and manage mule accounts, which are often used in digital fraud.

Public Engagement

  • In addition to the podcast, the RBI has organized events such as a quiz competition for students, highlighting its ongoing efforts to engage with the public on financial matters.

Key Highlights

Podcast for Transparency and Education

  • The new podcast series will be an addition to the RBI’s expanding communication tools, allowing the central bank to reach a wider audience and provide insights into monetary policy, financial stability, and literacy.

Focus on Financial Inclusion

  • The RBI has been proactive in addressing financial literacy challenges, particularly in rural and underserved communities, by offering multilingual resources.

Innovation in Financial Technology

  • The RBI continues to explore innovative technologies like AI and machine learning to strengthen its financial systems and address emerging risks, such as digital fraud.
Summary/Static Details
Why in the news? RBI Introduces Podcast Facility for Public Communication
Podcast Launch The RBI plans to launch a podcast series to improve transparency and disseminate information widely to the public.
Monetary Policy Announcement Key interest rates kept unchanged due to inflation risks; Cash Reserve Ratio reduced to inject more liquidity into the economy.
Financial Literacy Initiatives – Santali (Ol Chik) language booklets on financial products, services, and digital banking launched.

– Tailored resources for children, farmers, entrepreneurs, senior citizens, etc.

Artificial Intelligence Integration A committee called FREE-AI will address the risks of AI in the financial sector.
MuleHunter.AI AI-powered solution developed to detect and manage mule accounts used in digital fraud.
Public Engagement Efforts Events like quizzes for students to promote financial literacy; emphasis on financial education for broader public engagement.
Objective of Podcast To enhance communication transparency and support financial education, reaching diverse audiences and ensuring clearer understanding of RBI’s policies.

UNGA Declares December 21 as World Meditation Day

The UN General Assembly (UNGA) has unanimously adopted a resolution declaring December 21 as World Meditation Day, co-sponsored by India and supported by countries like Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mexico, and Andorra. This resolution emphasizes meditation’s role in achieving comprehensive well-being, inner peace, and coping with modern challenges such as stress and anxiety.

December 21, marking the Winter Solstice, is considered an auspicious time in Indian tradition for reflection and spiritual growth. It complements the International Day of Yoga observed on June 21 (Summer Solstice), highlighting India’s decade-long leadership in promoting wellness practices globally.

India’s Role and Leadership

India played a pivotal role in guiding the resolution, showcasing its commitment to global human well-being under the ethos of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (The world is one family). Ambassador Parvathaneni Harish emphasized that the declaration aligns with India’s civilizational philosophy and its efforts to promote practices for mental, emotional, physical, and spiritual harmony.

Meditation as a Global Wellness Tool

The resolution underlines meditation’s ancient roots and modern relevance. Scientific studies validate its benefits in reducing stress, improving cognitive and physical functions, and fostering harmony between humans and nature. This initiative aims to inspire individuals worldwide to adopt meditation as a tool for inner transformation and holistic health.

A Global Movement for Wellness

This declaration reflects a continuation of India’s global wellness initiatives, starting with its leadership in proclaiming the International Day of Yoga in 2014. Over a decade, yoga has evolved into a worldwide movement, and the new resolution seeks to achieve similar impact through meditation, especially amidst rising global tensions and conflicts.

Summary of the news

Key Point Details
Why in News UNGA adopted a resolution co-sponsored by India to declare December 21 as World Meditation Day.
Date Declared December 21, coinciding with the Winter Solstice and marking the beginning of Uttarayana.
Core Group Members India, Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mexico, Andorra.
Complementary Event International Day of Yoga observed on June 21 (Summer Solstice).
Indian Leadership Highlighted the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (The world is one family).
Scientific Benefits Meditation reduces stress and enhances cognitive and physical health.
Resolution Sponsor Introduced by Liechtenstein; co-sponsored by 14 countries including India.
Indian Representative Parvathaneni Harish, India’s Permanent Representative to the UN.
Static Data: UNGA Headquarters: New York, USA; Established: 1945; Members: 193.
Static Data: India Capital: New Delhi; Prime Minister: Narendra Modi; Permanent Representative: Parvathaneni Harish.

 

RBI Enables Small Finance Banks to Offer Pre-Sanctioned Credit via UPI

In a landmark move aimed at improving financial inclusion, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), after its Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting on December 6, 2024, announced that Small Finance Banks (SFBs) will now be permitted to offer pre-sanctioned credit lines through the Unified Payments Interface (UPI). This decision is expected to provide financial services to underserved groups, such as small businesses, micro-entrepreneurs, and individuals in rural and semi-urban regions. 

Key Points of the RBI’s Decision

Objective

  • The primary aim is to expand access to credit for underserved populations, including micro-entrepreneurs, small businesses, and rural customers.

Financial Inclusion

  • By leveraging UPI, a widely adopted digital payment platform, small finance banks can offer credit products, especially to customers who are “new-to-credit” — those who have limited or no formal access to credit.

Types of Credit Products

  • These products will generally involve smaller loan amounts with shorter terms, making them more accessible to individuals and businesses with minimal credit history.

Boost to UPI

  • The integration of credit facilities with UPI will streamline financial transactions and enable immediate access to funds without requiring the use of personal sav

Impact on Small Finance Banks (SFBs)

  • SFBs are known for their cost-efficient and technology-driven solutions for serving the last-mile customers.
  • The move allows SFBs to extend pre-sanctioned credit, bringing financial services to people and businesses traditionally excluded from formal credit systems.

Guidelines and Implementation

  • The RBI plans to release detailed guidelines for the implementation of this service, allowing SFBs to integrate the pre-sanctioned credit facility into their services.
  • This will empower SFBs to play a vital role in expanding credit access across the country.

Financial Inclusion

  • The RBI’s decision promotes financial inclusion by reaching out to sectors that have limited access to traditional banking and credit services, especially in rural and semi-urban areas.

Pre-Sanctioned Credit via UPI

  • The feature will enable customers to access pre-approved credit lines directly on the UPI platform, facilitating immediate credit for payments, thus reducing dependency on funds from personal accounts.

Regulatory Framework

  • The RBI has indicated that a regulatory framework for implementing this new feature will be issued shortly to guide SFBs in providing this service in a streamlined and efficient manner.
Summary/Static Details
Why in the news? International Cheetah Day
Date December 4
Established by Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF)
Historical Significance Cheetahs were revered in ancient Egyptian art and used as royal hunting companions in the Mughal Empire
Cheetah Population Fewer than 7,000 cheetahs remain in the wild
Main Threats to Cheetahs 1. Habitat loss (due to agriculture and urbanization)

2. Human-wildlife conflict (farmers killing cheetahs to protect livestock)

3. Illegal wildlife trade (cheetah cubs trafficked as exotic pets)

4. Climate change and road collisions

Conservation Efforts – Habitat restoration

– Breeding programs

– Anti-poaching efforts

– Community education to reduce human-wildlife conflict

Key Facts About Cheetahs – Fastest land mammals, reaching speeds up to 70 mph

– Acceleration from 0 to 60 mph in just a few seconds

– Excellent vision, spotting prey from up to 3 miles

– Social structure: males form coalitions, females are solitary

International Cheetah Day Focus – Education, awareness, and global conservation efforts

– Encourages people to support cheetah conservation through donations and advocacy

Which Country is Known as the Bread Basket of Europe?

Many countries have unique titles that reflect their culture, history or natural beauty. These names highlight what makes each nation special, like its traditions, landmarks or industries. Exploring these titles gives us a deeper understanding of the countries and their global contributions. In this article, we will know about the country which is known as the “Bread Basket of Europe.”

Bread Basket of Europe

Ukraine is called the “Bread Basket of Europe” because of its fertile land and strong agricultural production. Its rich soil, good climate, and access to water make it a top producer of grains and other crops.  However, recent geopolitical issues have affected its farming and exports.

Why is Ukraine Known as the Bread Basket of Europe?

Ukraine is known as the “Bread Basket of Europe” because of its fertile soil, ideal climate and abundant water resources. These factors make it perfect for growing crops like wheat, corn and barley. Ukraine is a top global exporter of grains, feeding each countries and earning its important agricultural title.

Ukraine, Leading Exports in Agriculture

Agricultural products are Ukraine’s top exports, making up about 50% of the country’s total exports. In 2021, Ukraine exported a record 106 million tons of grain. The main exports include wheat, barley, corn and sunflower oil, which are sent to countries all over the world.

A Global Grain Supplier

In the 2010s, Ukraine became one of the world’s top five grain exporters. Its grain supplies played a big role in feeding people in Europe, Africa and Asia. This is why Ukraine earned its title as the “Bread Basket of Europe.”

Impact of Geopolitical Issues

Unfortunately, geopolitical tensions with Russia have disrupted Ukraine’s agricultural production and exports. Conflict in the region has made farming and trade more difficult. This has unsettled Ukraine’s role as a global food supplier.

India to Chair 68th Session of UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs

India has achieved a significant milestone by being named to chair the 68th Session of the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND), marking the first time the country has been chosen for this prestigious role. Ambassador Shambhu S Kumaran, India’s Permanent Representative to the United Nations in Vienna, officially assumed the chairmanship of this crucial forum. The CND, a key policy-making body of the UN, focuses on addressing global drug-related issues and promoting international collaboration on drug control measures.

Role of the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND)

The CND is responsible for monitoring global drug trends, advising member states on drug policy, and overseeing the implementation of international drug conventions. It serves as a governing body of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), based in Vienna, and is a functional commission of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).

India’s Leadership and Responsibilities

India’s new role as Chair reinforces its growing leadership in global forums. As Chair, India aims to represent the interests of the Global South, ensuring that the voices of developing nations are heard in global drug policy discussions. The country is expected to foster dialogue, promote balanced approaches, and integrate concerns of emerging economies with developed nations.

Focus Areas of the 68th Session

The 68th session’s agenda will prioritize international collaboration to address pressing issues like illicit drug trafficking, substance abuse, and health-related impacts. India will work to strengthen evidence-based solutions, enhance access to controlled substances for medical and scientific purposes, and continue its commitment to equitable, inclusive, and sustainable strategies in addressing these challenges.

Summary of the news

Key Points Details
Why in News India assumed Chairmanship of the 68th Session of UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) for the first time. Ambassador Shambhu S Kumaran officially took charge.
Chairperson Shambhu S Kumaran, India’s Permanent Representative to the UN in Vienna.
Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) Principal policy-making body on global drug-related matters under ECOSOC.
Headquarters United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Vienna, Austria.
Mandates of CND Monitors global drug trends, formulates balanced policies, oversees international drug conventions.
UNODC Governing body focused on drugs, crime, and terrorism-related issues.
India’s Role To represent Global South interests and promote equitable drug policy.