Partition of Bengal in 1905 was one of the most disputed decisions made by the British during their rule in the India and it became a significant milestone in the evolution of the Indian Nationalism. It was introduced by Viceroy Lord Curzon, this Partition was justified on the administrative grounds, but for Indian nationalists, it was a policy of “Divide and Rule,” which was used to reduce the strength of the nationalistic movement.

It brought about great unrest among the people and revived Swadeshi and Boycott Movements, where people rejected goods from Britain and encouraged the production of domestic industries. After many years of strong opposition, the Partition was revoked in 1911.

What Was the Partition of Bengal 1905?

Prior to 1905, Bengal was a vast administrative region that consisted of modern-day Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam during different periods of British administration. The government cited the great size of the region and its enormous population as problems in the process of administration.

Partition was officially announced in July 1905 and was introduced on 16 October 1905. Thus, there were two main administrative divisions of Bengal:

Eastern Bengal and Assam, with Dacca as its capital, which had Muslim majority.
Western Bengal with the center in Calcutta, which had Hindu majority.

While administrative problems were real, nationalist leaders claimed that the purpose of the Partition was to divide the people and weaken Bengal that became an important center of politics and nationalism.

Why Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon?

According to the British government, administration was the primary factor. But as far as the Indian nationalists were concerned, politics had its role to play too.

Bengal became one of the most powerful regions in terms of the newly rising nationalist movement. Through partitioning the province on communal and linguistic lines, the colonial government would be able to diminish political strength and impact of the nationalist movement.

Thus, partitioning Bengal was a part of the British policy of divide and rule.

Anti-Partition Movement and the Swadeshi Movement

There was a wave of protest against the decision all over Bengal. Initially, the moderate nationalist leaders resorted to public meetings, petitions, newspapers and constitutional agitation to convince the British government to change their decision.

A turning point in the history of anti-partition movement was on 7 August 1905, when a huge meeting took place at Calcutta’s Town Hall to resolve in the boycott of British goods. Thus, the Swadeshi Movement started.

The movement led to,

• Boycott of British goods.
• Use of Indian goods.
• Development of indigenous industry and handloom.
• Setup of national institutions.
• Holding of public meetings and nationalist campaign.

On 16 October 1905, the date on which the partition came into operation, there were observances of mourning and demonstrations. Rakhi was tied to symbolize the Hindu-Muslim unity and people used to gather around the banks of River Ganga to sing patriotic songs such as Vande Mataram.

Extremist Nationalism’s Emergence

Besides that, the anti-partition agitation was also instrumental in the emergence of the Extremist Nationalist school of thought in the Indian National Congress.

Political leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai believed in a sterner mode of political activism through the methods of boycott, Swadeshi and national education.

The movement extended outside the state of Bengal and was thus able to take nationalism from being an activity of the educated politicians to a much more general campaign.

Repeal of the Partition of Bengal

The decision to abolish the partition came after long years of nationalist opposition.

The partition of Bengal was revoked in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar. There was no return to the earlier provincial set-up as the state was now reunited.

However, the two states of Bihar and Orissa were carved out of Bengal, while Assam too became a separate administrative division. The other important decision taken during the Delhi Durbar was that the capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

Significance of the Partition of Bengal 1905

The partition of Bengal marked a milestone in India’s struggle for independence. It proved that a well-organised mass protest could yield results and provided a wider context to the Swadeshi Movement.

Besides, it also gave boost to indigenous industries, national education and politics. However, at the same time, the perceived communal nature of the partition process led to political fragmentation among communities.

Indian National Congress (INC) was established in 1885 and emerged as one of the most significant political organizations in the history of freedom struggle in India. Starting from being a platform for educated Indians to leading mass movements against British colonialism, Indian National Congress underwent many important phases.

Several political associations and socio-religious movements were there in India prior to 1885 that made possible the organized nationalism. Founding of Congress provided an opportunity for political leaders from different regions of India to come together, discuss common issues and frame a common political agenda.

Annual and special sessions of INC got importance because important issues regarding India’s nationalist movement were discussed and decided in these sessions.

Foundation of the Indian National Congress

An all-India political organization was being thought by Indian political leaders prior to 1885. It was the retired British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume (A.O. Hume) who played a very important role in making this idea into reality.

With the cooperation of some of the most influential Indian political leaders, A.O. Hume organized the first session of Congress. Although the meeting was originally planned at Poona, but due to the outbreak of cholera at Poona, the meeting venue was shifted to Bombay.

First session of Indian National Congress was held on 28 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.

Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (W.C. Bonnerjee) was the president of the first session of INC.

The first session of Indian National Congress was attended by 72 delegates coming from different parts of India. At this time, INC remained an organization of educated Indians in which lawyers and professionals constituted a large part.

Objectives of the Early Congress

The early Congress leadership paid priority attention to establishing a political platform rather than calling for independence right away.

The following were the objectives set forth by W.C. Bonnerjee: to create friendship between Indians, eliminate prejudices related to race, religion and province, increase national unity, discuss political questions and outline further actions in the interests of the people.

Therefore, the early Congress aimed at raising political consciousness and national unity among Indians.

Theories Behind the Foundation of INC

There are various interpretations of the reasons behind the foundation of Indian National Congress in 1885 put forward by historians.

Safety Valve Theory

• This theory states that A.O. Hume helped to found the Congress as a form of organised constitutional pressure valve to discharge the dissatisfaction of educated Indians.
• The theory claims that the British rulers were afraid of potential revolt and intended to channel the political dissatisfaction through an organized movement instead of allowing a rebellion to arise.
• This theory was adopted by some nationalist leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai, but still there is a lot of controversy surrounding its validity among historians.

Conspiracy Theory

• R.P. Dutt, a historian, gave a more critical version of the theory described above.
• Conspiracy Theory states that the Congress was founded as part of an attempt to prevent an uprising and that certain members of Indian middle classes were also involved in this process.

Lightning Conductor Theory

• The third theory, the Lightning Conductor Theory, was developed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• The Lightning Conductor Theory states that the Congress was founded as a reflection of increasing political consciousness of Indians and desire of Indians for organization which can represent their political and economic interests.
• Nowadays, many theories of INC foundation emphasize the role of Indian nationalism and political consciousness along with Hume’s organizational efforts.

Important Sessions of the Indian National Congress

• President: Rash Behari Ghosh
• In this session, there was a split between Moderate and Extremists.
• Some of the leaders of the extremist wing like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal stood for active programme which involved boycott, swadeshi and national education.
• Disagreement with the Moderates led to the disturbance and finally suspension of the session.

Year 1916 – Lucknow Session

• President – Ambica Charan Mazumdar
• Lucknow Session of 1916 is important since this session saw the reunification of Moderates and Extremists within Congress.
• Lucknow Pact was signed between the Congress and the All India Muslim League in this session, which marked an important phase of cooperation between the two organizations.

Year 1917 – Calcutta Session

• President – Annie Besant
• Annie Besant becomes the first woman president of the Indian National Congress.

Year 1920 – Special Calcutta Session

• President – Lala Lajpat Rai
• Special session of Congress took place during which the political situation arising out of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and Khilafat was discussed.
• Non-Cooperation programme was adopted and later developed further at the Nagpur Session.

Year 1920 – Nagpur Session

• President – C. Vijayaraghavachariar
• Reorganization of Congress took place during the Nagpur Session and the strengthening of its commitment to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The organization broadened its mass base and participation of masses beyond the educated middle-class leaders.

Year 1923 – Special Delhi Session

• President – Maulana Mohammad Ali
• Congress revisited its stand on council entry and decided that Congress members can take part in elections to legislative councils.
• This development led to the coming up of the Swarajist trend within the national movement.

Year 1924 – Belgaum Session

• President – Mahatma Gandhi
• Belgaum Session has historical importance since it is the only session of Congress presided over by Mahatma Gandhi.

Year 1925 – Kanpur Session

• President – Sarojini Naidu
• Sarojini Naidu becomes the first Indian woman to preside over the Congress and the second woman after Annie Besant.

Year 1929 – Lahore Session

• President – Jawaharlal Nehru
• Lahore Session of 1929 is a landmark in India’s freedom struggle.
• Historic resolution of Purna Swaraj, or complete independence, is adopted by the Congress as its aim.
• The Congress also decides to observe 26 January 1930 as Independence Day, laying the political foundation for the Civil Disobedience Movement.

1931 – Karachi Session

• President – Vallabhbhai Patel
• The Karachi Session is particularly important for its resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme.
• It laid down the several important principles that are related to civil rights and socio-economic justice, which subsequently found the mention in India’s
• Constitution and politics as an independent country.
• At this session, the Congress has also approved the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• It showed appreciation for the courage and sacrifice of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev but opposed political violence.

1936 – Lucknow Session

• President – Jawaharlal Nehru
• This session attached great importance to the economic and social upliftment of Indians.
• In the meantime, the Congress was demanding complete independence, but it increasingly started dealing with problems of poverty, economic inequalities, and social welfare.

1937 – Faizpur Session

• President -Jawaharlal Nehru
• This session was historically significant in that it was the first Congress session to be held in a rural environment.
• The Congress focused on the problem of peasants and agrarian issues at this session.
• The Congress also demanded a Constituent Assembly based on adult suffrage.

1938 – Haripura Session

• President – Subhas Chandra Bose
• This session was presided over by Subhas Chandra Bose.
• One of its important decisions was the formation of National Planning Committee with Jawaharlal Nehru as chairman.
• The Congress increasingly started seeing the connection between political freedom and economic planning and industrial development.

1939 – Tripuri Session

• President – Subhas Chandra Bose
• Subhas Chandra Bose was again re-elected the Congress President after beating Pattabhi Sitaramayya who was supported by Gandhi.
• The subsequent differences between Subhas Chandra Bose and the Congress leadership resulted in his resignation from the presidency and eventual ouster from the Congress leadership.

1946 – Meerut Session

• President – J.B. Kripalani
• As British rule came to its end, the Congress dealt with the rapidly changing political situation.
• The party approved its participation in the Constituent Assembly and tackled the political consequences of the Cabinet Mission.

From a Moderate Party to a Mass Movement

In the beginning stages, Congress comprised mostly of well-educated and constitutional nationalists. It started out with its demands being those of administrative reforms, participation of Indians in the government and civil issues.

Gradually, the Congress underwent drastic changes.

The Swadeshi movement, extremist nationalism, the Home Rule movement and subsequently, the mass movements of the Mahatma Gandhi widened the base of the Congress Party.

Finally, the Congress emerged as the main organization fighting for the masses against British colonialism through the Non-Cooperation movement, Civil Disobedience movement and Quit India movement.

An overland trade route directly linking Russia with India through railways has the potential of becoming an emerging trade route in Eurasia if current discussions taking place in Moscow concerning this ambitious idea take shape beyond the level of talks.

Russian Deputy Prime Minister Marat Khusnullin said it was necessary to study the possibility of creating a railway corridor towards the Indian Ocean as an alternative to vulnerable sea routes.

The route may pass through Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan before arriving to the Indian Ocean and perhaps India. However, this idea is still in its infancy and not yet a railway project.

What is Russia-India Railway Route?

Russia is seeking ways to increase overland connectivity with South Asia and decrease dependence on sea routes that can be affected by geopolitical tensions.

Khusnullin said that it was necessary to study the possibility of building a railway route from Russia to the Indian Ocean with a possibility to connect through Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.

This railway route will in the future give the possibility for overland transportation of cargo from Russia to India, offering an alternative to traditional sea routes.

The significance of the idea is in linking the major regions of Russia, Central Asia and South Asia through one railway system.

Why is Russia Exploring Other Options Than the Strait of Hormuz?

One of the main reasons why this proposal has emerged is the strategic issue of maritime chokepoints, primarily the Strait of Hormuz.

The Strait of Hormuz is one of the critical energy corridors of the world. A lot of oil and liquefied natural gas supplies travel via this waterway and any disruption in it could affect energy supplies, cost of shipping and international business.

The reason behind the Russian exploration of alternatives is the need to avoid any potential disruptions from such choke points in the future.

A safe overland connection will provide Russia with the option of reaching its destination in case of high shipping costs, risks and disruptions.

Possible Route of the Overland Connection from Russia to India

The particular path that is being considered by Russia is quite difficult as it will have to pass through several different states with different infrastructure and political conditions.

It can be Russia → Turkmenistan → Iran → Afghanistan → Pakistan → India.

The part through Central Asia and Iran can be a connection between the existing Eurasian network of Russia with those leading towards the Indian ocean.

But the part further on from Afghanistan and Pakistan will increase the problems for Russia. The connection through railways will require compatibility of the railway system and many other issues to be addressed.

What Benefits Can the Rail Corridor Bring to India and Russia?

An overland link can open up an alternative route to access India’s market for Russia. This route could help cut down the use of marine transportation for certain types of goods.

For India, improved rail transportation could provide opportunities for diversification of trade routes with Russia and other countries located in Eurasia.

The rail corridor would be especially helpful for cargo that includes industrial goods, machinery and other items for which the predictable nature of the land transportation gives preference over longer and costlier maritime routes.

At the same time, however, maritime transportation would still remain a more economic way to ship many bulk goods, thus the construction of new railways could mean an additional transport link rather than a replacement of existing sea corridors.

Challenges Associated with the Implementation of the Proposed Route

Making the project a reality would be quite challenging.

First, there is an issue of the lack of infrastructure. In order to build a continuous rail freight link, there would need to be significant investment in tracks, terminals, border facilities, logistics centers and customs infrastructure.

Second, there is a question of coordination between the parties to the route. Transporting goods by rail across several countries would require certain agreements covering transit rights, customs procedures, tariffs, security and other issues.

In addition, security is another important aspect of any railway linking India and Russia via Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Finally, the project should be economically justified.

Russia’s Larger Transportation Plan

The new plan of linking Russia to the Indian Ocean is part of a larger strategy by Russia to create alternative international transportation corridors.

In an era where geopolitics is changing global commerce, there is an increase in countries searching for transportation corridors which will make them less dependent on single seaborne choke points or logistics chains.

Russia has already shown more interest in enhancing rail and multimodal transportation within the region. Such a link to the Indian Ocean may, therefore, prove to be strategically vital.

Is Russia Really Planning to Construct a Railway Line to India?

No, not at all. The rail corridor connecting Russia to India is still just a proposal and nothing concrete has been mentioned by Moscow yet.

There is still no clear timeline of its implementation.

The Dhansiri River is one of the significant rivers of Northeast India, being one of the major southern tributaries of the Brahmaputra. Running through the regions of Nagaland and Assam, the Dhansiri River is vital for the agriculture, biodiversity and various ecosystems along its path.

Moreover, the Dhansiri River has been in the spotlight of the 2026 floods of Assam, where the excessive monsoon rainfalls in the upper catchments led to increased water levels and caused the floods in Assam. The knowledge about the origin, course, tributaries and ecological significance of the Dhansiri River will help understand the reasons for the significant effect of the change of water levels on the lower courses.

Origin of the Dhansiri River

The Dhansiri River originates in the Laisang Peak region of Nagaland at the height of about 800 m above mean sea level. The Dhansiri River is one of the major southern tributaries of the Brahmaputra River.

The course of the Dhansiri is rather long and equals approximately 352 km, and its drainage area equals 12,200 square km. The Dhansiri River was also historically known under the name Khe-Nam-Ti-Ma, especially in relation to the Ahom period.

From the mountains, the Dhansiri flows first through the hills and then into the plain of Assam.

Course of Dhansiri River

The Dhansiri takes an active course as it moves from the hills of Nagaland to Brahmaputra.

The initial course of the river flows to the north-western direction for about 40 kilometres through the hilly areas of Nagaland.

After that, the river changes direction and begins moving to the north direction where it becomes the natural dividing line between Karbi Anglong of Assam and the areas of Nagaland such as Dimapur and Chümoukedima.

In Assam plains, the river becomes very important for the district of Golaghat. In the further course, the river flows downstream till Dhansirimukh where it merges with the Brahmaputra river at the southern banks.

The river becomes relatively wide in the lower course, the downstream average width is about 150 meters.

Major Tributaries of the Dhansiri

The Dhansiri river basin has many tributaries and small seasonal streams which are feeding the river in monsoon period.

Left-bank tributaries

Among the left-bank tributaries the following rivers are,

• Langlong river
• Dhansiri (south)
• Diphu river or Diphupani
• Seasonal streams of Karbi Anglong

Right-bank tributaries

Among the right-bank tributaries, there are the following rivers,

• Dayang river (the largest tributary)
• Khora river
• Beopani river
• Kaliani river

These tributaries drain the surrounding hills and bring a lot of runoff to the Dhansiri river.

Why is the Dhansiri River important?

The Dhansiri River is significant in terms of ecology, agriculture and economy.

Environmental significance

• The Dhansiri River Basin is part of a biologically diverse terrain. There are several forests within the river basin, including the Dhansiri Reserved Forest, while the catchment of the region in general is linked to the biological diversity of Assam and Nagaland.
• It hosts several types of fish and there have been over 34 fish species found within the river basin.

Agriculture and economics

• The lower basin of Dhansiri, especially near Golaghat, is a fertile agricultural region. The water of the river facilitates paddy farming and other kinds of agriculture.
• The river waters are also of importance to the industrial activity in the region, like the Numaligarh Refinery site.

Relation to Kaziranga ecosystem

• The lower Dhansiri River is also significant for maintaining the wetland around Kaziranga National Park.
• Seasonal flooding is crucial in maintaining wetlands, swamps, oxbow lakes and bils where fish and other aquatic life forms find habitat. This ecosystem provides a home to greater one-horned rhinoceros, wild water buffaloes and migratory birds.
• This means that flooding is not necessarily negative from the point of view of ecology. Seasonal flooding is an integral component of the functioning of Assam floodplain ecosystems, albeit excessive flooding may turn out to be destructive for humans.

Dhansiri River and the 2026 Assam Floods

The river became important during the 2026 July-August Assam flood events due to heavy rainfall in its upper catchment, leading to increased runoff within the riverine system.

Rainfall in the hills of Nagaland may cause large amounts of water to flow down the river within a shorter time. This is likely to exacerbate the flood risk when the water levels and rainfall become high in Assam.

Early in August 2026, increasing water levels on the Dhansiri (South) caused some alerts and emergency advisory in the vulnerable areas. There were flooding cases in parts of the Golaghat district, mainly within the Sarupathar sub-division.

Transportation routes have also been affected by flooding. Farming has been affected. Several people have been relocated to relief camps in response to the event.

Why does the Dhansiri flood so quickly?

There are various geographical and environmental reasons behind the flood risk characteristics of the river.

The upper catchment area experiences monsoon rains, while the terrain becomes steep, hence fast-flowing water into the river. The soil erosion and sediment flow may lead to river bed siltation and hence reduction in its capacity for discharging water.

In Assam’s plains, the river has bends and meanders. Monsoon floods in such cases are likely to cause substantial erosion along the banks.

Environmental problems for Dhansiri River Basin

There are many environmental threats for this river basin.

Sedimentation and soil erosion are some of them. Deforestation and random mining in the upper reaches of the basin can cause soil to run-off into the river.

Riverbank erosion is another common environmental threat. When there is heavy discharge in the rivers, it can wash out a big portion of the river bank causing the loss of farmland and displacing the people living on the banks.

Other environmental threats to the river include pollution and encroachment.

As hibernation is normally associated with animals that enter a period of extremely low activity, a small primate living in Madagascar seems to defy common knowledge.

Fat-tailed dwarf lemurs are the only primates known to hibernate; however, their hibernation is also accompanied by REM-like activity of the brain. REM sleep is widely known to be associated with dreams, hence raising many interesting questions on how the brain functions during a long period of inactivity.

What is the Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemur?

As it might be expected from the name of the creature, fat-tailed dwarf lemur is a small primate found only in Madagascar. This small animal is unique because of the ability of storing a huge amount of fat in its tail.

Fat becomes a sort of energy reserve for the animal. During the dry season of Madagascar, when finding food can be quite challenging, the lemur enters its hibernation period.

How Does the Lemur Hibernate?

Hibernation is unlike regular sleep in that there are many changes that happen within the physiology of the animal. These include significant drops in body temperature, heart rate, metabolism and activity level.

The fat-tailed dwarf lemur is adapted for such a condition as it gives an opportunity to survive during those times of low availability of food thanks to the fat reserve in its tail.

How does its Brain Function During Such a Special State?

REM-like brain activity found in torpor

During their research on the fat-tailed dwarf lemur, scientists came across the fact that its brain activity during hibernation was not reduced to zero.

What the researchers discovered were short bursts of brain activity during the torpor – the deep inactivity typical for hibernation, some of which looked like REM sleep.

REM, or rapid eye movement sleep, is the stage of sleep connected with dreaming in humans. The similar activity has been discovered in other animals during their sleep. The fact that there is REM-like activity during torpor makes the dwarf lemur rather special.

That is why scientists suppose that the animal may be dreaming while hibernating. What should be pointed out is the fact that brain activity only indicates such an opportunity and not necessarily actual dreams.

What Importance Might This Have?

The link between hibernation and brain function could enable researchers to learn more about how brains adapt to long periods of low metabolism.

Learning from animals that can put their bodies through these extreme states could lead to more knowledge about how brain cells protect themselves during long inactive periods.

Scientists are also curious about how this might one day contribute to studies of brain damage, medical treatment or long trips in space.

Therefore, the fat-tailed dwarf lemur is an important example of a creature that scientists can use to study the connections between sleep, hibernation and brain function.

An Extremely Well Adapted Little Mammal

Even though the fat-tailed dwarf lemur is small, it has a very special way of ensuring its survival. With its capacity to store energy in its tail and go through long periods of hibernation, it can live through times where its surroundings cannot give it any food.

It is also interesting that it is apparently capable of experiencing REM-like brain activity in torpor.

The actor Jimmy Shergill’s performance of Wing Commander BS Dhanoa in Netflix’s Operation Safed Sagar has put the spotlight on one of the Indian Air Force officers who was key to India’s victory in the 1999 Kargil War. Birender Singh Dhanoa was commanding officer of the IAF’s No. 17 Squadron or the Golden Arrows at that time when Indian fighter aircrafts were employed in the high-altitude war. The command of Operation Safed Sagar – the IAF’s air offensive mission in the Kargil War became another milestone of his military career. Later, Dhanoa became the Chief of the Air Staff which made him an unusual case of a successful fighter pilot becoming an Air Chief.

Who is BS Dhanoa?

Birender Singh Dhanoa, commonly known as BS Dhanoa, was commissioned as fighter pilot of the Indian Air Force in June 1978. During his military career he had been flying such frontline fighter aircraft as MiG-21, Jaguar, MiG-29 and Su-30MKI. Additionally, Dhanoa was a flying instructor.

During the Kargil War in 1999 he was commanding the No. 17 Squadron of the IAF (the Golden Arrows). It operated MiG-21 fighters and took an active part in Operation Safed Sagar.

BS Dhanoa and Operation Safed Sagar

The Kargil war posed a very tough operational situation for the Indian Air Force. The fighter planes had to perform in the mountains at high altitudes whereas the pilots also had to cope with tough weather and visibility conditions.

However, under the leadership of BS Dhanoa, the Golden Arrows adjusted their operational approach according to the tough situation. It is mentioned in the official biographical record of the officer that the squadron developed unique methods for night bombing at high altitudes which show how difficult it was for the IAF pilots to perform during the war.

The squadron was later rated the best fighter squadron of HQ Western Air Command. Dhanoa received Yudh Seva Medal and Vayu Sena Medal for his services during the Kargil War.

From Kargil Commander to Air Chief

BS Dhanoa’s military career saw continuous promotions after Kargil War. He served in various command positions of IAF, including posts at Air HQ and Western & Eastern Air Commands.

He took up position as Chief of the Air Staff in December 2016. Dhanoa was the Air Chief till September 2019 while he also served as Chairman of Chiefs of Staff Committee in 2019.

During his term as Air Chief, IAF witnessed a phase of many operations, including Balakot air strikes in February 2019. Thus, the military career of Dhanoa covered everything from piloting fighter aircraft and commanding the squadron during Kargil to becoming the chief of the whole Indian Air Force.

Why is BS Dhanoa relevant to Operation Safed Sagar?

BS Dhanoa is not just featured as a character in the Netflix series but has also been associated with the production of the series as an adviser who has talked about the significance of highlighting the contribution of the Indian Air Force during the Kargil War.

The history of Operation Safed Sagar offers a unique insight into the Kargil War as the IAF played a crucial role alongside the ground forces during the war.

This experience of Dhanoa had been historical and personal as well because while recalling the first days of the Kargil conflict, Dhanoa had said that their squadron was unaware of its mobilization towards battle until the month of May in 1999.

One of the greatest revolts which was took place against the British colonial rule in India is the Revolt of 1857. This revolt, also known as the Indian Uprising of 1857 or the Indian Rebellion of 1857, it started with a mutiny of sepoys at Meerut on May 10th, 1857. This mutiny later turned into a rebellion involving rulers, peasants, soldiers, zamindars and others.

The rebellion was successfully subdued by the British in 1858, but its repercussions were enormous. It resulted to the end of the East India Company rule and to India becoming a part of the British Crown. It also resulted in fundamental changes in the way British ruled.

What was the Revolt of 1857?

The revolt began with the Indian soldiers, who were known as sepoys, serving in the East India Company’s army. The revolt soon spread to cities such as Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Gwalior and some places in Bihar.

The revolt has been given different names through history. In English literature, it has been referred to as the Sepoy Mutiny or the Indian Mutiny, while the terms ‘Indian Rebellion of 1857’ or ‘Great Rebellion’ have also been used to describe the event.

In his book “The Indian War of Independence”, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar used the term “First War of Independence”.

Though the revolt did not cover the entire territory of India, it is considered to be the most dangerous threat to the East India Company rule before then.

Causes of the Revolt of 1857

This revolt was not the result of any one particular incident, but political expansion, economic exploitation, social and religious tension and military issues were accumulated for years. The issue of greased cartridges was the final trigger.

Political reasons

The expansionist policy of the British resulted in insecurity among Indian rulers and aristocratic families.

Under the Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Governor-General Dalhousie, the East India Company annexed certain princely states where a ruler died without a legitimate heir whose succession the British recognized.

The states that were annexed under this policy include Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur.

The annexation of Awadh in 1856, which the British justified on account of poor governance, created especially much discontent. Many nobles, officials, soldiers and retainers were deprived of their posts and privileges.

Another reason of the growing resentment against the British was the refusal of recognizing the successor of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi.

Economic Causes

The British economic policies put enormous pressure on peasants, artisans and traditional elite class.

High taxes and stringent methods of revenue collection resulted in hardships for peasants and zamindars, those who failed to pay their tax had to either lose their land or be under obligation of the money lenders.

On the other hand, there was severe competition in the traditional Indian handicraft industries due to cheap industrial products of Britain after Industrial Revolution. The textile industry and other artisan class had been greatly affected by that, resulting in unemployment and economic difficulties.

The economic problems of the villages also impacted the sepoys as most of the soldiers belonged to peasant community and thus were closely connected with the villages.

Social and Religious Causes

British social and religious policies created a sense of suspicion amongst the Indian people.

For example, social reforms like banning of Sati and widow remarriage was seen by some conservative elements of the society as interference in their social practices. Introduction of western education and Christian missionary works also led to a fear that British was out to convert Indians into Christians and destroy Indian religions.

Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 which assured property rights for any converts raised controversy in the era of suspicion.

Even modern inventions like railway and telegraph were looked upon with suspicion because of their association with colonial government.

Military factors

This rebellion arose due to serious discontent among members of the Bengal Army.

While the Indian soldiers formed a majority in the army of the Company, they suffered discrimination regarding salaries, promotions and services vis-à-vis European soldiers.

The Indian soldiers were also worried about having to serve outside India. In 1856, the General Service Enlistment Act led to fears among some Indian soldiers of being compelled to serve overseas, a concern that had religious ramifications for some groups.

The long-standing grievance among the military helped create a situation whereby a relatively minor problem would lead to a greater uprising.

Immediate Cause Greased cartridges

The immediate reason for the rebellion was the introduction of the Enfield rifle and issues concerning its cartridges.

There was a rumor that the cartridges were greased using cow and pig fat. Soldiers had to break the cartridge by biting the bullet before using it in the rifle. This violated the beliefs of Hindus and Muslims.

The issue created greater distrust between the sepoys and their officers who were British.

At Barrackpore, Mangal Pandey assaulted the officers in March 1857 after refusing to use the cartridges. He was later executed on 8 April 1857.

At Meerut, 85 sepoys refused to use the cartridges and received imprisonment as a penalty. In May 1857, the other sepoys mutinied and freed their imprisoned friends before marching towards Delhi.

The revolt had started.

Revolt Centres and Leaders

Delhi – Bahadur Shah Zafar

• The rebels reached Delhi and approached the symbolic legitimacy of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last emperor of Mughal.
• Even though he was old and powerless, his connection with the Mughal throne provided a significant symbolic center for the revolt.

Kanpur – Nana Saheb

• The rebellion at Kanpur was led by Nana Saheb who was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• His grievances were somewhat related to the denial by the British to honor the pension of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• Initially, his forces achieved success but he was unable to hold Kanpur against the British forces that reinforced there.
• His general Tantia Tope led the struggle after his disappearance.

Lucknow – Begum Hazrat Mahal

• Begum Hazrat Mahal, connected to the dethroned Nawab of Awadh, was a major figure among the leaders of the revolt in Lucknow.
• The annexation of Awadh caused resentment in many quarters and thus helped to raise the revolt among the soldiers, the landlords, and people.

Jhansi – Rani Lakshmibai

• Among the many leaders of the revolt, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi was one of the best-known ones.
• Her grievances arose because the British denied her adopted son any rights to succeed and Jhansi was thus subjected to the doctrine of lapse.
• She fought British forces during the rebellion and ultimately joined hands with Tantia Tope.
• She died fighting the British forces in June 1858 at Gwalior.

Bihar – Kunwar Singh

• Kunwar Singh, a leading landlord of Jagdispur, spearheaded the revolt in Bihar.
• Notwithstanding his old age, he contributed actively in the revolt and offered resistance to the British till his death in 1858.

Why did the Revolt of 1857 fail?

Though very passionate, the revolt ultimately failed.

Its first major flaw was its confined geographical presence. Southern, western and eastern India was completely untouched by the revolt. Many princely states like Hyderabad, Mysore and Kashmir did not join the revolt.

The second major flaw was the lack of centralised leadership and coordination of strategies. Though the leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope showed great courage and patriotism, there was no single leadership to coordinate the efforts of all the people who were participating in the rebellion.

Besides, the British had military superiority and facilities for communication and logistic support. Telegraphs enabled them to maintain fast communication between places whereas reinforcements could be sent whenever required.

In addition to this, certain sections of the population and princely states were supportive of the British Government.

How was the Revolt Suppressed?

The British gradually wrested control of the major rebel centres.

Delhi was captured back in September 1857. Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested and exiled to Rangoon.

Under the leadership of generals like Sir Colin Campbell and Sir Hugh Rose, British troops managed to recapture important centres like Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi and Gwalior.

Although Tantia Tope continued his guerrilla struggle for some time, he too was finally caught and hanged.

By mid-1858, organized resistance was almost over. Peace was officially declared on 8 July 1858 by Lord Canning.

Results of the Revolt of 1857

The most significant outcome of the revolt was the end of East India Company rule in India.

The Government of India Act, 1858 placed the administration of India under the control of the British crown and not the East India Company. The British crown was thus responsible for India’s government.

The governor-general also became the viceroy, with Lord Canning being the first viceroy of India.

The British gave up the Doctrine of Lapse and promised to honour the right to succession in the Indian princely states which remained loyal to the British crown.

The government also announced its intention to show more consideration for the religious sentiments of the Indians.

Significance of the Revolt of 1857

Although it did not succeed in toppling British supremacy, the Revolt of 1857 turned out to be an important milestone in the modern history of India.

Firstly, it revealed the scale of resentment against Company’s rule in India. Secondly, the participants of the revolt were united in their actions in different locations.

Thirdly, the Revolt of 1857 impacted the evolution of the Indian nationalism. Even though the Indian nationalist movement had not appeared yet, the recollection of the revolt and its protagonists proved to become a significant element of the Indian struggle for independence.

Among them there were Rani Lakshmibai, Mangal Pandey, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, Nana Saheb and Begum Hazrat Mahal.

Books on the Revolt of 1857

Some important books dedicated to the revolt were written from different points of view. These books include The Indian War of Independence by V.D. Savarkar, The Indian Mutiny of 1857 by George Bruce Malleson and Great Mutiny by Christopher Hibbert.

Some more books analyzing the revolt include Rebellion, 1857: A Symposium by Puran Chand Joshi and Religion and Ideology of the Rebels of 1857 by Iqbal Husain.