States and Capitals

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States and Capitals – How Many States in India?

India, a vast South Asian nation and the world’s seventh-largest by land area, is divided into 28 states and 8 union territories, each with its own capital. These states and territories are further segmented into districts. New Delhi, situated in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, serves as India’s administrative, political, and cultural hub.

The states and capitals of India weave a rich and diverse tapestry, reflecting the country’s deep cultural heritage, traditions, and innovations. Exploring these regions offers a fascinating journey through time, blending ancient legacies with modern advancements, tradition with contemporary influence, and showcasing India’s remarkable unity in diversity.

In 1956, India reorganized its states according to linguistic demographics. Today, the country consists of 28 states and 8 Union Territories, home to nearly 400 cities. Among these, eight major metropolitan cities—Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, and Pune—are prominent. The Prime Minister has introduced a plan to develop 100 smart cities across the nation, with Indore being recognized as the Smart City for four consecutive years. Discover India’s dynamic urban landscape and its focus on modernization.

How many states in India?

India is the 7th largest country in the world by land area and the 2nd most populated. The country is divided into states and union territories so that the government can function properly. Below is a list of all 28 states, their capitals and the year they were formed.

S.NO	State	Capital	CM	Governor
1	Andhra Pradesh	Amaravati	Sri Nara Chandrababu Naidu	S. Abdul Nazer
2	Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	Pema Khandu	Kaiwalya Trivikram Parnaik
3	Assam	Dispur	Himanta Biswa Sarma	Lakshman Prasad Acharya
4	Bihar	Patna	Nitish Kumar	Arif Mohammed Khan
5	Chhattisgarh	Raipur	Vishnu Deo Sai	Ramen Deka
6	Goa	Panaji	Pramod Sawant	P.S. Sreedharan Pillai
7	Gujarat	Gandhinagar	Bhupendra Patel	Acharya Dev Vrat
8	Haryana	Chandigarh	Nayab Singh Saini	Bandaru Dattatraya
9	Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu	Shiv Pratap Shukla
10	Jharkhand	Ranchi	Hemant Soren	Santosh Kumar Gangwar
11	Karnataka	Bengaluru	Siddaramaiah	Thaawarchand Gehlot
12	Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	Pinarayi Vijayan	Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar
13	Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	Mohan Yadav	Mangubhai Chhaganbhai Patel
14	Maharashtra	Mumbai	Devendra Fadnavis	C.P. Radhakrishnan
15	Manipur	Imphal	N. Biren Singh	Ajay Kumar Bhalla
16	Meghalaya	Shillong	Conrad Kongkal Sangma	C H Vijayashankar
17	Mizoram	Aizawl	Lalduhoma	General (Dr.) Vijay Kumar Singh, PVSM, AVSM, YSM (Retd.)
18	Nagaland	Kohima	Neiphiu Rio	La. Ganesan
19	Odisha	Bhubaneswar	Mohan Charan Majhi	Dr. Hari Babu Kambhampati
20	Punjab	Chandigarh	Bhagwant Singh Mann	Gulab Chand Kataria
21	Rajasthan	Jaipur	Bhajan Lal Sharma	Haribhau Kisanrao Bagde
22	Sikkim	Gangtok	PS Golay	Om Prakash Mathur
23	Tamil Nadu	Chennai	M. K. Stalin	R. N. Ravi
24	Telangana	Hyderabad	Anumula Revanth Reddy	Jishnu Dev Varma
25	Tripura	Agartala	Dr. Manik Saha	Indra Sena Reddy Nallu
26	Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	Yogi Aditya Nath	Anandiben Patel
27	Uttarakhand	Dehradun	Pushkar Singh Dhami	Lt. Gen. Gurmit Singh
28	West Bengal	Kolkata	Mamata Banerjee	Dr. C.V. Ananda Bose

Union Territories of India and Their Capitals

India has 8 union territories that are managed by the central government. Some of them have their own legislative assemblies. Below is the of these union territories and their capitals:

S.NO	Union Territories	Capital	CM	Lt. Governor
1	Andaman and Nicobar Island	Port Blair	NA	D K Joshi
2	Chandigarh	Chandigarh	NA	Banwarilal Purohit
3	Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	Daman	NA	Praful Patel
4	Delhi	Delhi	Rekha Gupta	Vinai Kumar Saxena
5	Ladakh	NA	NA	B. D. Mishra
6	Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	NA	Praful Patel
7	Jammu and Kashmir	NA	Omar Abdullah	Manoj Sinha
8	Puducherry	Pondicherry	N. Rangaswamy	C. P. Radhakrishnan

Difference Between States and Union Territories

India is divided into states and Union Territories for administrative purposes. They are in different in how they are governed.

Basis of Difference	States	Union Territories
Head of Administration	Governor	Administrator or Lieutenant Governor
Government Type	Elected by the People	Managed by the central government
Powers	Shares power with the central government.	Controlled directly by the central government.

Indian States and their Languages

India is a country with a rich and diverse linguistic heritage. There are over 121 languages spoken in India, and each state has its unique linguistic landscape. The Indian Constitution recognizes 22 languages as “scheduled languages,” which are given special status in government and education.

S. No.	States	Language
1	Andhra Pradesh	Telugu and Urdu
2	Arunachal Pradesh	Miji, Apotanji, Merdukpen, Tagin, Adi, Honpa, Banging-Nishi
3	Assam	Assamese
4	Bihar	Hindi
5	Chhattisgarh	Hindi
6	Goa	Marathi Konkani
7	Gujarat	Gujarati
8	Haryana	Hindi
9	Himachal Pradesh	Hindi and Pahari
10	Jharkhand	Hindi
11	Karnataka	Kannada
12	Kerala	Malayalam
13	Madhya Pradesh	Hindi
14	Maharashtra	Marathi
15	Manipur	Manipuri
16	Meghalaya	Khashi, Jaintia, And Garo
17	Mizoram	Mizo and English
18	Nagaland	Ao, Konyak, Angami, Sema, and Lotha
19	Odisha	Oriya
20	Punjab	Punjabi
21	Rajasthan	Rajasthani and Hindi
22	Sikkim	Bhutia, Hindi, Nepali, Lepcha, Limbu
23	Tamil Nadu	Tamil
24	Telangana	Telugu
25	Tripura	Bengali, Tripuri, Manipuri, Kakborak
26	Uttar Pradesh	Hindi
27	Uttarakhand	Hindi
28	West Bengal	Bengali

Some Key Facts About Indian States

Each state in India is unique and has something special. Here are some interesting facts about a few states:

Andhra Pradesh: Famous for spicy food and historical sites like Charminar.
Assam: Know for tea gardens and Kaziranga National Park, home to the one-horned rhinoceros.
Bihar: A place with a rich history, home to Bodh Gaya and the ancient city of Pataliputra.
Goa: Popular for beautiful beaches and a lively nightlife.
Kerala: Famous for its backwaters, Ayurveda treatments and lush green nature.
Maharashtra: Mumbai, the financial capital, is also home to Bollywood.
Himachal Pradesh: Known for stunning hill stations and adventure sports.
Tamil Nadu: Famous for classical dance forms and grand temples.

OpenAI Introduces Codex to Automate and Accelerate Coding Tasks

OpenAI has unveiled Codex, a powerful new cloud-based AI coding agent capable of autonomously handling a range of software engineering tasks in parallel. From writing new features and running tests to fixing bugs and drafting pull requests, Codex aims to boost developer productivity by operating within a secure sandbox environment that uses a developer’s codebase as context. Launched on May 16, 2025, under research preview, the tool is initially available to ChatGPT Pro, Enterprise, and Team users.

Why in News?

OpenAI’s launch of Codex on May 16, 2025, marks a major milestone in the field of AI-driven software development. With Codex’s ability to multitask autonomously, the tool is expected to transform the role of developers and reshape how programming tasks are approached—especially as major tech firms, like Microsoft, increasingly rely on AI-generated code.

Key Features of OpenAI Codex

Multitasking Capabilities: Performs multiple programming tasks (feature writing, testing, debugging) simultaneously in the cloud.
Sandboxed Environment: Runs in a secure cloud sandbox preloaded with the user’s code repository.
Traceability: Provides terminal logs and test outputs to show exactly how tasks were completed.
Custom Instructions via AGENTS.md: Developers can guide Codex using AGENTS.md files for better contextual performance.
Model Used: Powered by codex-1, a variant of the o3 reasoning model, optimized for real-world coding tasks.
Interfaces with ChatGPT: Accessible through a side panel in the ChatGPT web app.

Use Cases

Writing new features
Debugging code
Running unit tests
Refactoring legacy codebases
Suggesting and managing pull requests
Writing documentation and scaffolding components

Performance and Benchmarks

codex-1 outperformed o3 model on SWE-bench Verified and internal SWE benchmarks.
Capable of iteratively testing until it achieves passing results.

Access and Pricing

Available under research preview for ChatGPT Pro, Enterprise, and Team users.
Free access for a limited period, after which rate-limited access and flexible pricing will be introduced.
ChatGPT Plus and Edu users to gain access later.

Difference Between Codex and Codex CLI

Feature	Codex (Web-based)	Codex CLI (Command-line)
Interface	Web-based via ChatGPT sidebar	Terminal-based (macOS/Linux only)
Model Default	codex-1	o4-mini (codex-mini-latest)
Execution Location	Cloud sandbox	Local machine
API Integration	Built-in	User-selectable via Responses API

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	OpenAI Introduces Codex to Automate and Accelerate Coding Tasks
Name	Codex
Developed by	OpenAI
Launch Date	May 16, 2025
Access	Availability ChatGPT Pro, Enterprise, and Team (Plus and Edu to follow)
Key Model Used	codex-1 (variant of o3 reasoning model)
Key Functions	Feature writing, bug fixing, test execution, pull request generation
Notable Feature	Runs multiple tasks in parallel within a cloud sandbox
Access	Cost Free (limited period), then rate-limited/flexible pricing
Interface Type	Web-based interface inside ChatGPT sidebar

Carlos Alcaraz Clinches First Italian Open Title in Style

In a highly anticipated clash that reignited one of tennis’s most thrilling rivalries, Carlos Alcaraz defeated Jannik Sinner 7-6 (5), 6-1 to win his first-ever Italian Open title on May 18, 2025. The victory marks Alcaraz’s 7th Masters 1000 title and further solidifies his dominance on clay, especially after Sinner’s return from suspension. This win also ends Sinner’s incredible 26-match winning streak.

Why in News?

Carlos Alcaraz made headlines by Winning the 2025 Italian Open. Defeating world No. 1 Jannik Sinner on his home turf in Rome. Becoming the third player since 1990 to win all major clay court titles under the ATP Tour. Extending his head-to-head record against Sinner to 7-4.

Aim & Significance

To win a major clay court title missing from Alcaraz’s cabinet.
To reaffirm dominance on clay ahead of Roland Garros 2025.
To showcase Alcaraz’s evolution in tactics and mental composure.

Key Highlights

Match Score: 7-6 (5), 6-1 in Alcaraz’s favor.
Masters 1000 Titles: This is his 7th.
Overall ATP Titles: 19 titles.
Sinner’s Record Halted: 26-match winning streak ended.
Surface: Clay, Alcaraz’s strongest.
Tactics Used: Varied shot pace, high topspin, disciplined play.
Crucial Moment: Saved two set points at 5-6 in the first set and won a tense tie-break.
Public Interest: Sinner had become a national icon in Italy, adding to the crowd pressure.

Background and Static Info

Carlos Alcaraz: 22-year-old Spanish tennis player; Roland Garros 2024 champion.
Jannik Sinner: Italian world No. 1; recently returned from anti-doping suspension.
Italian Open (Rome Masters): An ATP Masters 1000 tournament held at Foro Italico, Rome.
Previous Meetings: Alcaraz now leads the head-to-head rivalry 7-4.
Sinner’s Season Record Before Final: 41-2 since August 2024.

Analysis

Alcaraz displayed remarkable tactical discipline and mental toughness. His variety in stroke play and ability to disrupt Sinner’s rhythm was critical. The victory comes at a pivotal moment in his career, reaffirming his stature before Roland Garros and symbolizing a passing of torch from the “Big Three” era to the Alcaraz-Sinner era.

India Opens Nuclear Energy Sector to Private Operators with Liability Reform

States and Capitals - How Many States in India?_8.1

In a significant policy shift, the Indian government is planning to allow private sector operators to participate in the country’s nuclear energy sector for the first time. Alongside this move, it also proposes to limit their liability, a step seen as essential to attract private investments and technology partnerships. This development comes in the backdrop of the United States permitting its firms to manufacture nuclear equipment and undertake design work in India, reflecting deepening Indo-U.S. civil nuclear cooperation.

Why in News?

The government is preparing to revamp its nuclear energy regulations to permit private operators, reducing liability risks that have long been a deterrent for private and foreign participation. This comes shortly after the U.S. government’s decision to allow its nuclear firms to collaborate with India — a strategic move that will strengthen India’s civil nuclear capabilities and energy security.

Private Participation

For the first time, private companies will be allowed to operate nuclear power plants in India.
This move aligns with global best practices and aims to meet India’s growing energy demands.

Limited Liability Clause

The government plans to cap or limit the liability of private operators in the event of a nuclear accident.
Liability concerns have long stalled foreign and private investment in nuclear energy.

Legal Adjustments

Amendments to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 (CLND Act) may be considered.
The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) has so far been the sole operator.

U.S. Involvement

The U.S. recently permitted its companies to manufacture nuclear equipment and perform design work in India.
This marks an important step forward in the Indo-U.S. nuclear deal signed in 2008.

Significance

Enhances energy security by boosting clean and base-load energy.
Encourages technology transfer, innovation, and infrastructure development.
India aims to increase its nuclear power capacity to 22 GW by 2031.

Current Nuclear Scenario

India has 22 operational nuclear reactors.
All existing reactors are state-owned, primarily by NPCIL.
Nuclear power contributes around 3% of India’s electricity mix.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	India Opens Nuclear Energy Sector to Private Operators with Liability Reform
Policy Change	Private sector to be allowed in nuclear energy operations
Legal Shift	Proposal to limit operator liability under CLND Act
U.S. Link	U.S. allows its firms to collaborate in India
Benefits	Energy security, tech access, private investment
Current Status	All reactors state-owned; 3% share in electricity
Goal	Goal 22 GW nuclear power capacity by 2031

Top 5 Fastest Spacecrafts Ever Built [With Speed in km/s]

Speed is one of the most crucial aspects of space exploration. Whether it’s escaping Earth’s gravity, reaching distant planets, or studying the Sun, spacecraft must travel at incredible velocities. Over the years, several space agencies have built record-breaking spacecrafts, each pushing the boundaries of speed and engineering.

In this article, we’ll look at the top 5 fastest spacecrafts ever built as of 2025, measured by their maximum recorded speed in kilometers per second (km/s).

1. Parker Solar Probe –192 km/s (Fastest Ever)

Agency: NASA (United States)
Launched: August 12, 2018
Mission Goal: Study the outer corona of the Sun
Top Speed: 192 km/s (as of 2025, projected to reach 200+ km/s in future flybys)

Why it’s fastest: The Parker Solar Probe holds the current record for the fastest human-made object. It achieved this speed by using multiple gravity assists from Venus and diving extremely close to the Sun — closer than any spacecraft in history.

2. Helios 2 – 70.2 km/s

Agency: NASA / DLR (Germany)
Launched: January 15, 1976
Mission Goal: Study solar wind and solar magnetic fields
Top Speed: 70.2 km/s

Why it’s special:
Helios 2 was part of a mission to study the inner solar system and came within 43 million km of the Sun. It held the fastest speed record for decades before being overtaken by Parker Solar Probe.

3. Helios 1 – 66 km/s

Agency: NASA / DLR (Germany)
Launched: December 10, 1974
Mission Goal: Solar studies in collaboration with Helios 2
Top Speed: 66 km/s

Why it’s fast: Helios 1 was the forerunner to Helios 2 and had a similar trajectory. Both spacecrafts provided key early data about the Sun’s atmosphere and paved the way for modern solar missions.

4. New Horizons – 16.3 km/s

Agency: NASA
Launched: January 19, 2006
Mission Goal: Flyby of Pluto and exploration of the Kuiper Belt
Top Speed: 16.3 km/s (at launch, one of the fastest ever)

Why it’s famous: New Horizons was the first spacecraft to explore Pluto, delivering stunning images and data in 2015. It continues to explore the Kuiper Belt and remains one of the fastest spacecrafts still operational.

5. Voyager 1 – 17 km/s (Relative to the Sun)

Agency: NASA
Launched: September 5, 1977
Mission Goal: Explore outer planets; now in interstellar space
Top Speed: 17 km/s

Why it’s legendary: Voyager 1 is the farthest human-made object from Earth, currently traveling in interstellar space. Though not the fastest at launch, gravity assists from Jupiter and Saturn accelerated it to incredible speeds.

Comparison Table: Fastest Spacecrafts (2025)

Rank	Spacecraft	Top Speed (km/s)	Mission Type	Agency
1	Parker Solar Probe	~192	Solar Probe	NASA
2	Helios 2	~70.2	Solar Observation	NASA / DLR
3	Helios 1	~66	Solar Observation	NASA / DLR
4	Voyager 1	~17	Interstellar Probe	NASA
5	New Horizons	~16.3	Pluto/KBO Flyby	NASA

Why Are These Speeds Important?

Escape Velocity: To leave Earth’s gravity, a spacecraft needs to reach at least 11.2 km/s.
Solar Missions: Require much higher speeds to counter the Sun’s gravitational pull.
Interplanetary and Interstellar Travel: The faster the spacecraft, the more ground it can cover in space exploration.

ISRO’s PSLV-C61/EOS-09 Mission Faces Setback Due to Stage-3 Glitch

In a rare setback, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was unable to accomplish its 101st mission involving the PSLV-C61 launch carrying the EOS-09 earth observation satellite. The mission, launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre on May 18, 2025, failed due to an unexpected issue in the third stage of the PSLV rocket.

Why in News?

The PSLV-C61/EOS-09 mission, aimed at deploying a critical Earth observation satellite into a Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO), could not be completed. A fall in chamber pressure during the third stage of the rocket led to mission failure, marking a significant anomaly in ISRO’s otherwise strong PSLV track record.

Background & Mission Overview

Launch Date: May 18, 2025, 5:59 a.m. IST
Launch Site: Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota
Mission Name: PSLV-C61/EOS-09
Satellite Weight: 1,696.24 kg
Configuration: PSLV-XL (Extra Large)

Objectives of EOS-09

To provide all-weather earth observation through Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
To supply continuous remote sensing data for operational applications in agriculture, forestry, soil moisture, disaster management, etc.
Enhance frequency and reliability of remote sensing outputs.

Technical Glitch

The first and second stages performed nominally.
Third stage anomaly: Fall in chamber pressure in the solid rocket motor.
Result: The mission could not place EOS-09 into the intended orbit.

PSLV-C61 in Context

101st ISRO mission, 63rd flight of PSLV.
Only third failure since the PSLV’s first flight in 1993.
Last failure before this: PSLV-C39 in 2017.
Previous successful mission: SpaDeX (Dec 2024)

EOS-09 Satellite

Uses RISAT-1 heritage bus, developed for all-weather radar imaging.
Mission Life: 5 years
Equipped with SAR payload to capture high-resolution images in all weather.

ISRO Response

ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan confirmed technical failure and assured post-mission analysis.
Former Chairman S. Somanath expressed confidence in ISRO’s capacity to identify and correct the fault.

Recent Setbacks

Follows the NVS-02 mission anomaly in Jan 2025 due to a valve malfunction.
Reflects the increasing complexity of India’s space missions and the need for evolving technology validation.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	ISRO’s PSLV-C61/EOS-09 Mission Faces Setback Due to Stage-3 Glitch
Mission Name	PSLV-C61/EOS-09
Launch Date	May 18, 2025
Mission Status	Unsuccessful due to third-stage failure
Satellite Objective	Earth observation using Synthetic Aperture Radar
Satellite Weight	1,696.24 kg
PSLV Flight Number	63rd PSLV mission, 27th in XL configuration
ISRO Response	Investigation underway into third-stage anomaly
Previous PSLV Failure	PSLV-C39 in 2017

NSDL Reports Robust FPI Investment in May Amid Economic Stability

Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) have demonstrated a renewed interest in Indian equity markets, infusing ₹4,452.3 crore between May 13 and 16, 2025, according to data from the National Securities Depository Limited (NSDL). With this, the total net investment by FPIs in May has reached ₹18,620 crore, marking a significant rebound in foreign investor sentiment after months of outflows earlier this year.

Why in News?

This week saw a surge in FPI inflows into Indian equities, driven by easing global uncertainties and improved domestic economic outlook. Despite a turbulent start to 2025, the inflow of ₹18,620 crore in May points to a strong turnaround in investor confidence.

Key Highlights

FPIs brought in ₹4,452.3 crore between May 13–16, 2025.
₹5,746 crore was infused on May 16 alone, the highest in the week.
Despite inflows, there was a net outflow of ₹2,388 crore on May 13, indicating mixed market signals.
Net investment by FPIs in Indian equities for May 2025: ₹18,620 crore.
In April 2025, FPIs invested ₹4,223 crore, reversing previous negative trends.

Background

FPIs were net sellers in January to March 2025,

January: ₹-78,027 crore
February: ₹-34,574 crore
March: ₹-3,973 crore
Cumulative outflow in 2025 till date: ₹-93,731 crore

Sectoral Performance

Defence sector: +17%
Capital Markets: +11.50%
Reality: +10.85%

All major sectoral indices traded positively last week.

Reasons Behind Inflows

Easing global concerns
Stable domestic economic indicators
Anticipation of favourable election results
Recovery in rupee performance and corporate earnings

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	NSDL Reports Robust FPI Investment in May Amid Economic Stability
Total FPI inflow (May 2025)	₹18,620 crore
Weekly inflow (May 13–16)	₹4,452.3 crore
Highest daily inflow	₹5,746 crore on May 16
2025 YTD FPI position	Net outflow of ₹-93,731 crore
Sectoral Outperformers	Defence (+17%), Capital Markets, Reality
April 2025 FPI trend	Positive: ₹4,223 crore inflow

China vs USA: Who Will Dominate the 21st Century?

As the world navigates an era of rapid transformation, the geopolitical contest between China and the United States continues to define the global landscape. In 2025, their rivalry spans across economics, technology, military strength, and diplomacy. This in-depth comparison outlines which country is positioned to lead the 21st century.

Economic Power in 2025

United States

Nominal GDP: Approximately $29.8 trillion
Largest economy in terms of market exchange rates
Leading global hub for finance, innovation, and consumer spending
US dollar remains the world’s dominant reserve currency

China

Nominal GDP: Approximately $20.5 trillion
Largest economy in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Global manufacturing and export leader
Belt and Road Initiative expanding economic influence globally

Summary: The United States leads in nominal terms, while China is ahead in purchasing power and infrastructure-driven outreach.

Technological Innovation

United States

Global leader in artificial intelligence research and development
Dominant in chip design, software, cloud infrastructure, and space technology
Home to major tech companies and top-ranked research institutions

China

Leader in AI deployment, 5G infrastructure, and smart city technologies
Top producer of electric vehicles and solar technology
Heavy investment in semiconductor independence and quantum tech

Summary: The United States leads in foundational innovation, while China is rapidly advancing in implementation and scale.

Military Strength in 2025

United States

Defense budget: Around $880 billion
Over 800 military bases worldwide
Superior capabilities in nuclear deterrence, cyber defense, and naval power
Member of powerful alliances like NATO and AUKUS

China

Defense budget: Around $260 billion
World’s largest standing army
Expanding presence in the South China Sea and Taiwan Strait
Focused on regional dominance and military modernization

Summary: The United States maintains a global military edge, while China is asserting regional dominance.

Global Influence and Soft Power

United States

Leading cultural exporter through media, education, and lifestyle
Influential in international institutions like the UN, IMF, and World Bank
Global diplomatic reach backed by long-standing alliances

China

Expanding influence through the Belt and Road Initiative
Strengthening ties in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia
Lower soft power due to censorship, surveillance, and limited cultural openness

Summary: The United States leads in cultural and diplomatic soft power, while China is leveraging economic tools for influence.

Demographics and Talent

United States

Younger and more diverse population
Continues to attract top global talent through universities and work opportunities
Innovation supported by immigration and entrepreneurship

China

Experiencing population decline and aging workforce
2025 marks a noticeable shrinkage in labor supply
Investing in automation and AI to address demographic challenges

Summary: The United States has long-term demographic advantages; China’s aging population presents future constraints.

Comparison Overview

Category	United States	China
Nominal GDP	$29.8 trillion	$20.5 trillion
GDP (PPP)	~$29 trillion	~$35 trillion
Military Budget	$880 billion	$260 billion
Technology Leadership	R&D innovation	Rapid application
Soft Power	High	Moderate
Demographic Strength	Younger, diverse	Aging, shrinking

Top-10 Countries with the Highest Foreign Exchange Reserves by 2025

Foreign exchange reserves are like a country’s financial savings. These include foreign money (like dollars or euros), gold and special international assets. In 2025, the world’s total foreign exchange reserves are about $12.3 trillion. These reserves help countries keep their country strong, pay international debts and handle economic problems.

What are Foreign Exchange Reserves?

Foreign exchange reserves are the money and assets held by a country’s central bank. These can include:

Foreign currencies
Gold
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) from the International Monetary Fund (IMFs)

Countries use these reserves to keep their currency stable, support trade and protect their economy during financial troubles.

Why are Forex Reserves Important?

Help manage inflation
Support the country’s currency
Pay for inputs and international loans
Deal with global market changes and emergencies

Total Foreign Exchange Reserves in 2025

In 2025, total foreign exchange reserves in the world are estimated at $12.3 trillion. This shows how important these reserves are for the global economy.

Country with the Highest Forex Reserves in 2025

China has the largest foreign exchange reserves in the world in 2025, totally $3.57 trillion. These huge reserves help China control its currency, the yuan (CNY), supports trade and stay strong in global markets. The People’s Bank of China mostly holds these reserves in US dollars, along with some euros, yen and gold.

Top-10 Countries with the Highest Foreign Exchange Reserves by 2025

China is the top country with more than $3.57 trillion, highest reserves in the world. Most of this is in US dollars, along with euros, yen and gold. China uses these reserves to support the yuan (CNY) and keep its trade strong.

Here is the list of top-10 countries with the highest foreign exchange reserves by 2025:

Rank	Country	Foreign Exchange Reserves (in USD million)
1.	China	$3,571,803 million
2.	Japan	$1,238,950 million
3.	Switzerland	$952,687 million
4.	India	$686,145 million
5.	Russia	$620,800 million
6.	Taiwan	$576,846 million
7.	Saudi Arabia	$434,547 million
8.	Hong Kong	$421,400 million
9.	South Korea	$415,700 million
10.	Brazil	$388,571 million

India’s Position in Foreign Exchange Reserves

In 2025, India ranks fourth in the world with $686.1 billion in foreign exchange reserves. These reserves help support the Indian rupee (INR), control inflation and keep the economy strong during global changes. India’s strong reserve position shows its economic stability. Russia follows in fifth place with $620.8 billion, though reduced due to sanctions and political tensions.

Gyan Bharatam Mission: A New Era for India’s Manuscript Heritage

Prime Minister Narendra Modi is set to launch the revamped National Manuscripts Mission (NMM) on June 9, 2025, under the new title ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’, aiming to preserve India’s vast manuscript heritage. With a significant budget increase from ₹3.5 crore to ₹60 crore, this initiative will survey, document, digitize, and conserve over one crore manuscripts lying in academic institutions, libraries, museums, and private collections.

Why in News?

The revival and relaunch of the National Manuscripts Mission has been scheduled for June 9, as announced in the 2025 Union Budget. The increased budgetary allocation and efforts to make the mission autonomous mark a major step forward in safeguarding India’s ancient intellectual treasures.

Key Objectives

Survey, document, digitize, and conserve India’s manuscript heritage.
Expand the reach to over one crore manuscripts across the country.
Establish a clear access policy to encourage sharing of privately held manuscripts.
Make the National Manuscripts Mission autonomous to ensure greater efficiency.

Key Highlights

The initiative will operate under the ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’ banner.
A massive budget hike from ₹3.5 crore to ₹60 crore was announced in the Union Budget.
The revamped mission will include a new organization likely launched by PM Modi on June 9.

Background

National Manuscripts Mission (NMM) was established in 2003, under the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA).
Despite initial promise, the mission had not progressed as expected due to limited access, coordination, and budgetary support.

Current Status

52 lakh manuscripts metadata prepared.
3 lakh manuscripts digitized, but only 1.3 lakh uploaded.
Only 70,000 manuscripts are publicly viewable due to lack of access policy.
80% of manuscripts in India are held by private collectors.
Over 9 crore folios conserved in the past 21 years.

Expert Consultation

Meetings chaired by Union Culture Minister Gajendra Singh Shekhawat.
Noted experts involved: Udaya Narayana Singh, K. Ramasubramanian, Sudha Gopalakrishnan, and representatives from Google Arts and Culture.

Significance

Revival aims to preserve India’s linguistic and cultural diversity.
Enhances digital access, research, and educational outreach.
Promotes India’s heritage globally by integrating technology with tradition.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	Gyan Bharatam Mission: A New Era for India’s Manuscript Heritage
Initiative Name	Gyan Bharatam Mission (Revamped NMM)
Launch Date	June 9, 2025
Budget Allocation	Increased from ₹3.5 crore to ₹60 crore
Objective	Preservation and digitization of 1 crore+ manuscripts
Current Digitization	Status 3 lakh digitized, 1.3 lakh uploaded, only 70,000 viewable
Major Challenge	Lack of access policy; 80% manuscripts privately held
Conservation Work	9 crore folios preserved over 21 years
Implementing Body	Ministry of Culture (to become autonomous)

Chandrayaan-3 vs Luna-25: Race to the Moon’s South Pole

The race to the Moon’s south pole in 2023 saw two major space powers—India and Russia—attempting to achieve a historic first. With India launching Chandrayaan-3 and Russia sending Luna-25, the world watched closely to see who would land on this unexplored lunar region first.

Here’s a detailed comparison of both missions, their objectives, outcomes, and the broader significance for lunar exploration.

Background: Why the Moon’s South Pole?

The Moon’s south pole has become the new frontier in lunar exploration due to:

Presence of water ice in permanently shadowed regions
Ideal location for setting up future lunar bases
Untapped scientific potential

Reaching and studying this region could be the key to long-term human presence on the Moon.

Mission Overview

Chandrayaan-3 (India)

Agency: ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation)
Launch Date: July 14, 2023
Landing Date: August 23, 2023
Landing Site: Near the lunar south pole
Objective: Soft-landing and deploying a rover for surface analysis
Outcome: Successful landing — India became the first country to land near the Moon’s south pole.

Luna-25 (Russia)

Agency: Roscosmos
Launch Date: August 10, 2023
Expected Landing Date: August 21, 2023
Landing Site: Boguslawsky Crater (south polar region)
Objective: Land and analyze lunar soil for water ice
Outcome: Mission failed — Luna-25 crashed into the Moon due to a descent anomaly on August 19, 2023.

Chandrayaan-3 vs Luna-25: Mission Comparison

Feature	Chandrayaan-3	Luna-25
Country	India	Russia
First South Pole Landing	Yes (historic)	No (crash)
Mission Type	Lander + Rover	Lander only
Budget	Approx. $75 million	Estimated $200 million
Propulsion & Control	Vikram Lander + Pragyan Rover	Soyuz-2.1b + Luna Lander
Status	Success	Failure
Global Recognition	High — India’s prestige in space rose sharply	Damaging to Russia’s recent space credibility

Key Achievements of Chandrayaan-3

First mission to land successfully on the Moon’s south pole.
Pragyan rover conducted in-situ experiments including:

Detection of sulfur and other surface elements
Thermal and mechanical property analysis

Demonstrated India’s capabilities in autonomous lunar landings.

Impact of Luna-25 Crash

Russia’s first lunar mission in 47 years ended in failure.
Raised concerns about Roscosmos’ technical capabilities and aging infrastructure.
Delays expected in future Russian lunar missions, including Luna-26 and 27.

Why Chandrayaan-3 Succeeded

Lessons from Chandrayaan-2’s crash in 2019
Improved software, landing algorithms, and terrain navigation
Emphasis on cost-effective, focused engineering

Global Implications

India emerged as a global leader in low-cost space innovation.
The Moon’s south pole is now a key focus for future missions:

NASA Artemis III (2026): Human landing near the south pole
ISRO’s Chandrayaan-4 (expected): Lunar sample return mission
China’s Chang’e 7 (2026): Detailed exploration of polar region