States and Capitals

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States and Capitals – How Many States in India?

India, a vast South Asian nation and the world’s seventh-largest by land area, is divided into 28 states and 8 union territories, each with its own capital. These states and territories are further segmented into districts. New Delhi, situated in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, serves as India’s administrative, political, and cultural hub.

The states and capitals of India weave a rich and diverse tapestry, reflecting the country’s deep cultural heritage, traditions, and innovations. Exploring these regions offers a fascinating journey through time, blending ancient legacies with modern advancements, tradition with contemporary influence, and showcasing India’s remarkable unity in diversity.

In 1956, India reorganized its states according to linguistic demographics. Today, the country consists of 28 states and 8 Union Territories, home to nearly 400 cities. Among these, eight major metropolitan cities—Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, and Pune—are prominent. The Prime Minister has introduced a plan to develop 100 smart cities across the nation, with Indore being recognized as the Smart City for four consecutive years. Discover India’s dynamic urban landscape and its focus on modernization.

How many states in India?

India is the 7th largest country in the world by land area and the 2nd most populated. The country is divided into states and union territories so that the government can function properly. Below is a list of all 28 states, their capitals and the year they were formed.

S.NO	State	Capital	CM	Governor
1	Andhra Pradesh	Amaravati	Sri Nara Chandrababu Naidu	S. Abdul Nazer
2	Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	Pema Khandu	Kaiwalya Trivikram Parnaik
3	Assam	Dispur	Himanta Biswa Sarma	Lakshman Prasad Acharya
4	Bihar	Patna	Nitish Kumar	Arif Mohammed Khan
5	Chhattisgarh	Raipur	Vishnu Deo Sai	Ramen Deka
6	Goa	Panaji	Pramod Sawant	P.S. Sreedharan Pillai
7	Gujarat	Gandhinagar	Bhupendra Patel	Acharya Dev Vrat
8	Haryana	Chandigarh	Nayab Singh Saini	Bandaru Dattatraya
9	Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu	Shiv Pratap Shukla
10	Jharkhand	Ranchi	Hemant Soren	Santosh Kumar Gangwar
11	Karnataka	Bengaluru	Siddaramaiah	Thaawarchand Gehlot
12	Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	Pinarayi Vijayan	Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar
13	Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	Mohan Yadav	Mangubhai Chhaganbhai Patel
14	Maharashtra	Mumbai	Devendra Fadnavis	C.P. Radhakrishnan
15	Manipur	Imphal	N. Biren Singh	Ajay Kumar Bhalla
16	Meghalaya	Shillong	Conrad Kongkal Sangma	C H Vijayashankar
17	Mizoram	Aizawl	Lalduhoma	General (Dr.) Vijay Kumar Singh, PVSM, AVSM, YSM (Retd.)
18	Nagaland	Kohima	Neiphiu Rio	La. Ganesan
19	Odisha	Bhubaneswar	Mohan Charan Majhi	Dr. Hari Babu Kambhampati
20	Punjab	Chandigarh	Bhagwant Singh Mann	Gulab Chand Kataria
21	Rajasthan	Jaipur	Bhajan Lal Sharma	Haribhau Kisanrao Bagde
22	Sikkim	Gangtok	PS Golay	Om Prakash Mathur
23	Tamil Nadu	Chennai	M. K. Stalin	R. N. Ravi
24	Telangana	Hyderabad	Anumula Revanth Reddy	Jishnu Dev Varma
25	Tripura	Agartala	Dr. Manik Saha	Indra Sena Reddy Nallu
26	Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	Yogi Aditya Nath	Anandiben Patel
27	Uttarakhand	Dehradun	Pushkar Singh Dhami	Lt. Gen. Gurmit Singh
28	West Bengal	Kolkata	Mamata Banerjee	Dr. C.V. Ananda Bose

Union Territories of India and Their Capitals

India has 8 union territories that are managed by the central government. Some of them have their own legislative assemblies. Below is the of these union territories and their capitals:

S.NO	Union Territories	Capital	CM	Lt. Governor
1	Andaman and Nicobar Island	Port Blair	NA	D K Joshi
2	Chandigarh	Chandigarh	NA	Banwarilal Purohit
3	Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	Daman	NA	Praful Patel
4	Delhi	Delhi	Rekha Gupta	Vinai Kumar Saxena
5	Ladakh	NA	NA	B. D. Mishra
6	Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	NA	Praful Patel
7	Jammu and Kashmir	NA	Omar Abdullah	Manoj Sinha
8	Puducherry	Pondicherry	N. Rangaswamy	C. P. Radhakrishnan

Difference Between States and Union Territories

India is divided into states and Union Territories for administrative purposes. They are in different in how they are governed.

Basis of Difference	States	Union Territories
Head of Administration	Governor	Administrator or Lieutenant Governor
Government Type	Elected by the People	Managed by the central government
Powers	Shares power with the central government.	Controlled directly by the central government.

Indian States and their Languages

India is a country with a rich and diverse linguistic heritage. There are over 121 languages spoken in India, and each state has its unique linguistic landscape. The Indian Constitution recognizes 22 languages as “scheduled languages,” which are given special status in government and education.

S. No.	States	Language
1	Andhra Pradesh	Telugu and Urdu
2	Arunachal Pradesh	Miji, Apotanji, Merdukpen, Tagin, Adi, Honpa, Banging-Nishi
3	Assam	Assamese
4	Bihar	Hindi
5	Chhattisgarh	Hindi
6	Goa	Marathi Konkani
7	Gujarat	Gujarati
8	Haryana	Hindi
9	Himachal Pradesh	Hindi and Pahari
10	Jharkhand	Hindi
11	Karnataka	Kannada
12	Kerala	Malayalam
13	Madhya Pradesh	Hindi
14	Maharashtra	Marathi
15	Manipur	Manipuri
16	Meghalaya	Khashi, Jaintia, And Garo
17	Mizoram	Mizo and English
18	Nagaland	Ao, Konyak, Angami, Sema, and Lotha
19	Odisha	Oriya
20	Punjab	Punjabi
21	Rajasthan	Rajasthani and Hindi
22	Sikkim	Bhutia, Hindi, Nepali, Lepcha, Limbu
23	Tamil Nadu	Tamil
24	Telangana	Telugu
25	Tripura	Bengali, Tripuri, Manipuri, Kakborak
26	Uttar Pradesh	Hindi
27	Uttarakhand	Hindi
28	West Bengal	Bengali

Some Key Facts About Indian States

Each state in India is unique and has something special. Here are some interesting facts about a few states:

Andhra Pradesh: Famous for spicy food and historical sites like Charminar.
Assam: Know for tea gardens and Kaziranga National Park, home to the one-horned rhinoceros.
Bihar: A place with a rich history, home to Bodh Gaya and the ancient city of Pataliputra.
Goa: Popular for beautiful beaches and a lively nightlife.
Kerala: Famous for its backwaters, Ayurveda treatments and lush green nature.
Maharashtra: Mumbai, the financial capital, is also home to Bollywood.
Himachal Pradesh: Known for stunning hill stations and adventure sports.
Tamil Nadu: Famous for classical dance forms and grand temples.

G7 vs BRICS: Global Power Shift Explained

The global order is witnessing a significant transformation as two major blocs—G7 and BRICS—increasingly represent divergent visions of economic and geopolitical leadership. While the Group of Seven (G7) has long dominated global decision-making, the BRICS alliance is emerging as a powerful counterweight, challenging Western dominance and advocating for a multipolar world.

This article delves deep into the origins, objectives, and influence of both blocs and explores how their growing rivalry reflects a broader global power shift.

Understanding the G7: The Established Western Power Bloc

Formation and Membership

The G7, short for Group of Seven, is an intergovernmental organization formed in 1975 during the economic crises of the 1970s. Initially established as a forum for the world’s most advanced economies, the current members include:

United States
Canada
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Italy
Japan
(With the European Union participating as a non-enumerated member)

These nations represent liberal democracies, share Western values, and collectively contribute a substantial share to the global GDP.

Core Objectives

The G7’s core agenda focuses on:

Global economic stability
Trade liberalization
Climate action
Security cooperation
Democratic governance

It functions largely as a policy coordination platform, influencing major international institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, and WTO.

Introducing BRICS: The Voice of the Emerging South

Formation and Membership

BRICS is an acronym for a coalition of five major emerging economies:

Brazil
Russia
India
China
South Africa (joined in 2010)

Established formally in 2009, BRICS was born out of the desire to create a more inclusive global order—one that reflects the growing economic and political clout of the Global South.

Strategic Vision

The BRICS alliance stands for:

Reform of global financial institutions
Greater representation for developing countries
Non-Western models of development
Sovereignty and non-interference

Their key initiatives include the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), which aim to provide alternatives to Western-dominated institutions like the IMF and World Bank.

Comparative Strengths: G7 vs BRICS

Economic Power

As of 2024, the G7 countries collectively account for about 30–40% of global GDP, though this share is shrinking due to the rapid growth of emerging economies.
BRICS, in contrast, collectively contribute about 31–33% of global GDP (on a PPP basis), and this number is increasing steadily.

Population and Resources

The G7 nations have a combined population of around 775 million.
BRICS nations represent over 3.2 billion people, nearly 40% of the world’s population, and hold vast natural resources (especially in energy and agriculture).

Military Influence

The G7 includes three nuclear powers and NATO members with significant military clout.
BRICS includes Russia, China, and India, all of which are nuclear powers with growing defense industries and global military ambitions.

Key Areas of Rivalry and Cooperation

Geopolitical Influence

The G7 seeks to preserve a rules-based international order, rooted in liberal democracy and open markets. In contrast, BRICS countries argue for non-interventionist policies, multipolarity, and respect for national sovereignty.

This divergence is evident in crises such as:

Russia-Ukraine War: G7 imposed sanctions on Russia, while BRICS members (except Brazil and India occasionally) remained neutral or supportive.
Israel-Palestine Conflict and Global South Development: BRICS advocates for more balanced representation and less Western hegemony in conflict resolution.

Financial Systems and Currency Shift

BRICS has begun discussing de-dollarization strategies, including:

Settling trade in local currencies
Establishing an alternative reserve currency
Strengthening the New Development Bank to rival the IMF/World Bank

This contrasts sharply with the G7’s reliance on the US dollar and Western-dominated financial infrastructure.

The Role of Expansion: BRICS+ vs G7 Cohesion

BRICS Expansion

In 2023 and 2024, BRICS announced the inclusion or consideration of new members like Argentina, Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates, under the BRICS+ framework.

This expansion aims to:

Enhance global South representation
Strengthen energy partnerships (with OPEC nations)
Bolster economic and diplomatic reach

G7: A Closed Circle

G7 remains a closed and cohesive bloc, emphasizing shared values over numbers. However, this exclusivity sometimes limits its legitimacy in addressing global inequalities.

Ideological and Institutional Divergence

Western Liberalism vs Multipolar Pragmatism

The G7 promotes:

Democracy
Human rights
Environmental sustainability

BRICS, while diverse ideologically, shares a skepticism of:

Western interventionism
Unilateral sanctions
Imposed models of governance

This philosophical divide increasingly influences UN debates, climate summits, and international law frameworks.

Institutional Alternatives

While G7 supports traditional Western institutions, BRICS actively builds parallel structures:

New Development Bank (NDB) vs World Bank
CRA vs IMF
BRICS Summit vs G7 Summit

Implications for the Global Order

The rise of BRICS signals a gradual shift from a unipolar to a multipolar world. Key consequences include:

A weakened Western monopoly over global governance
More diverse leadership on issues like trade, climate, and development
Potential for geoeconomic fragmentation—as BRICS seeks autonomy from Western institutions

However, BRICS must overcome internal divergences in politics, strategy, and economic models to maintain long-term coherence.

Arjun Mk1A vs T-90 Bhishma: Best Indian Main Battle Tank?

India’s armored corps forms a crucial element of its land warfare strategy, and at the forefront of this capability are two impressive main battle tanks (MBTs): the Arjun Mk1A, an indigenous design, and the T-90 Bhishma, a customized version of Russia’s T-90S. Both tanks play critical roles in the Indian Army but represent differing design philosophies and battlefield roles. This article explores these two platforms in depth, evaluating their firepower, protection, mobility, and operational relevance.

1. Design Origins and Philosophy

The Arjun Mk1A is a product of India’s own defense research establishment, developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). It is an evolved variant of the Arjun Mk1 and reflects decades of indigenous design, development, and user feedback. Its design emphasizes crew survivability, heavy armor, and modern electronics.

In contrast, the T-90 Bhishma is based on Russia’s tried-and-tested T-90S platform. Acquired through both direct imports and licensed production by Heavy Vehicles Factory (HVF) in Avadi, the T-90 represents a lighter, more maneuverable approach. It is optimized for mass deployment and rapid battlefield mobility.

2. Firepower and Armament

The Arjun Mk1A is equipped with a 120 mm rifled gun, capable of firing indigenously developed FSAPDS, HESH, and even anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). It also features a remote-controlled weapon station (RCWS) for anti-aircraft and close-range engagements.

The T-90 Bhishma features a 125 mm smoothbore gun, integrated with an autoloader, which reduces the need for a manual loader. It supports a wide range of ammunition, including APFSDS, HEAT, and ATGMs like the Invar missile. While it may have a slightly faster reload rate due to the autoloader, the Arjun’s rifled barrel offers better long-range accuracy.

3. Protection and Survivability

The Arjun Mk1A boasts an advanced composite armor package along with explosive reactive armor (ERA) panels. It is also fitted with the Advanced Laser Warning and Countermeasure System (ALWCS), mine ploughs, and nuclear-biological-chemical (NBC) protection, making it one of the best protected MBTs in the region.

The T-90 Bhishma employs a blend of Kontakt-5 ERA and composite armor, offering robust protection but in a more compact and lighter frame. It also features Shtora-1 passive electro-optical countermeasures to reduce the effectiveness of enemy ATGMs and laser-guided threats.

4. Mobility and Weight

A notable difference lies in the mobility-to-weight ratio. The Arjun Mk1A, with a combat weight of approximately 68.5 tons, is one of the heaviest MBTs in the world. Despite its 1,500 hp engine, its bulk can limit its ability to operate in certain terrains, such as riverine or desert environments.

On the other hand, the T-90 Bhishma, weighing around 46.5 tons, is more agile and suited for the diverse terrain of the Indian subcontinent, especially in the Thar desert. Its 1,000 hp engine may be less powerful, but the lower weight contributes to better speed and strategic mobility.

5. Technology and Crew Comfort

The Arjun Mk1A features a state-of-the-art fire control system, thermal imaging sights, hunter-killer capability, and automatic target tracking. It is also equipped with modern digital communication systems and enhanced crew ergonomics, offering a high degree of situational awareness and battlefield management.

The T-90 Bhishma also includes modern optics and fire control systems, but its Russian legacy systems are seen as slightly dated compared to Arjun’s newer integrations. Its interior is more cramped, affecting crew comfort over extended operations.

6. Operational Role and Strategic Relevance

The T-90 Bhishma is the backbone of India’s armored forces, with over 1,100 units in active service. It is heavily deployed along India’s western borders and is well-integrated into India’s current armored doctrines.

The Arjun Mk1A, though numerically fewer, is considered a technological demonstrator and a high-endurance platform suitable for heavy-duty tasks. Its deployment is currently focused on select regiments, particularly in the southern sector and regions where its size and weight pose less of a logistical challenge.

Yala Glacier Declared ‘Dead’ in Nepal A Local Mourning on Loss

The Yala Glacier in Nepal, once a crucial site for glaciological training and cryosphere research in the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH), has now been officially declared “dead” — marking a significant and symbolic loss in the global climate crisis. On May 12, 2025, scientists, local communities, and monks gathered in Langtang, Nepal, to hold a poignant memorial for the glacier, which has retreated dramatically over recent decades. This event highlights the severe impact of global warming on Himalayan glaciers, with profound consequences for water security and ecological stability across South Asia.

Why in the news?

Nepal’s Yala Glacier in Langtang has officially been declared “dead,” making it the first glacier in Asia to receive a memorial plaque. The declaration took place on May 12, 2025, during a poignant ceremony attended by glaciologists and locals from the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. This marks a symbolic and scientific moment in the escalating climate crisis, highlighting the rapid pace of glacial retreat due to global warming.

Key Highlights and Ceremony Details

The Yala Glacier, located in Langtang, Nepal, has lost 66% of its mass and retreated 784 meters since the 1970s.
A plaque was installed with messages by authors Andri Snaer Magnason and Manjushree Thapa in English, Nepali, and Tibetan.
The glacier funeral was attended by over 50 people, including monks, scientists, and locals from Nepal, India, China, and Bhutan.
Yala Glacier is the third glacier globally to be memorialized in this way, after OK Glacier (Iceland) and Ayoloco Glacier (Mexico).

Background and Significance

Yala Glacier has served as a training site for over 100 glaciologists and provided in-situ data for research.
It is one of 38 glaciers with detailed measurement records and one of only 7 glaciers in the entire HKH arc with decadal monitoring.
ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development) coordinated the ceremony, emphasizing the region-wide impacts of deglaciation.

Scientific and Environmental Concerns

Earth’s mountain glaciers have lost ~9 trillion tonnes of ice since 1975.
CO₂ levels recorded at 426 ppm in May 2025, correlating with rising global temperatures.
2025 marks the third consecutive year of below-normal snow cover in the HKH region.
Snow persistence in the Ganga basin is 24.1% below normal, the lowest in 23 years, threatening water availability.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	Yala Glacier Declared ‘Dead’ in Nepal A Local Mourning on Loss
Glacier Name	Yala Glacier
Location	Langtang, Nepal
Declared Dead	May 2025
Retreat Since	1970s 784 meters
Mass Loss	66%
Agencies Involved	ICIMOD, Glaciologists, Local Communities
Environmental Message	Global warming, water insecurity, climate crisis
Importance	Training site, scientific data, climate monitoring
Notable Quotes	Andri Snaer Magnason, Manjushree Thapa

India Explores Human Sustainability in Space under BioE3 Policy

India is preparing to send its first space biology experiments to the International Space Station, focusing on the potential for sustaining human life beyond Earth. This initiative, jointly conducted by ISRO and the Department of Biotechnology, centers around microalgae and cyanobacteria studies under the AXIOM-4 mission, and aligns with India's BioE3 Policy to advance biotech for space sustainability.

India is poised to conduct its first-ever biological experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS) as part of the AXIOM-4 mission, marking a crucial step in exploring the sustainability of human life in space. These experiments, in collaboration between ISRO and the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), aim to study the behavior of microalgae and cyanobacteria in microgravity. The mission falls under the broader vision of the BioE3 Policy, which promotes the use of biotechnology for sustainable development.

Why in News?

On May 16, 2025, the Union Minister of State for Science & Technology announced that India will carry out space-based biological experiments for the first time. These experiments will be launched aboard the AXIOM-4 mission to the ISS, supporting India’s efforts to establish long-term human presence in space and develop sustainable biotechnological solutions.

Key Objectives

To assess the feasibility of human life support systems in space.
To explore sustainable food sources using microalgae and cyanobacteria.
To advance India’s capability in biomanufacturing and biotechnology in space environments.

About the Experiments

Conducted as part of the AXIOM-4 ISS mission.
Spearheaded by ISRO and DBT under the BioE3 Policy.

1. Microalgae Experiment

Investigates how microgravity and space radiation impact growth.
Focus on edible microalgae as a nutrient-rich food source.
Aims to provide safe and sustainable nutrition for long-duration space missions.

2. Cyanobacteria Experiment

Studies the growth and proteomic responses of cyanobacteria species such as Spirulina and Synechococcus.
Uses urea- and nitrate-based media to compare growth responses.
Explores Spirulina as a superfood due to its high protein and vitamin content.

About BioE3 Policy

Full Form: Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment.
Implemented by: Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology.
Purpose: To integrate cutting-edge biotech research with India’s economic, environmental, and employment goals.
Focus Areas: Biomanufacturing, bio-innovation, sustainability, and technology-led growth.

Significance of the Experiments

Strengthens India’s space biosciences capability.
Supports future human spaceflight programs, including Gaganyaan and beyond.
Promotes food security in extraterrestrial environments.
Aligns with India’s strategic goal of self-reliance in space research and biotech.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	India Explores Human Sustainability in Space under BioE3 Policy
Mission	AXIOM-4 (ISS)
Agencies Involved	ISRO & DBT
Objective	Study sustainability of human life in space
Key Experiments	Microalgae and Cyanobacteria (Spirulina)
BioE3 Policy	Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, Employment
Importance	Food sustainability, space research, biotech advancement
Implementation Body	Department of Biotechnology
Superfood Studied	Superfood Studied Spirulina
Launch Date (Expected)	Part of future AXIOM-4 mission

India-Japan’s LUPEX Mission Enters Design Phase

India and Japan have taken a major step in their joint lunar exploration effort with the Chandrayaan-5 mission, also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration). The mission, which aims to study the presence of water and water-ice on the Moon’s surface and subsurface, is set to enter the design phase after finalizing instrument selections and completing engineering model testing. The 6.5-tonne spacecraft is scheduled to launch on Japan’s H3 rocket in 2027-28.

Why in News?

The Chandrayaan-5 mission has officially entered its preliminary design phase, following key progress on instrumentation and testing. The announcement was made during the Global Space Exploration Conference held in New Delhi, where officials from JAXA and ISRO confirmed that both space agencies are actively working on the development of the lander and the rover for the LUPEX mission.

Mission Overview & Objectives

Name: Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX – Lunar Polar Exploration Mission)
Collaborators: ISRO (India) and JAXA (Japan)
Goal: Explore water and water-ice at the Moon’s south pole (surface + subsurface)
Planned Launch: 2027-28 aboard Japan’s H3 rocket
Duration: 100 days (proposed)
Lander: Built by ISRO
Rover (350 kg): Developed by JAXA
Instruments: 7 onboard, including contributions from ESA and NASA

Scientific Instruments & Capabilities

One large instrument with four sensors (1 by ISRO, 3 by JAXA)
ESA: Developing a mass spectrometer
NASA: Designing neutron spectrometers

Instruments designed for,

In-situ experiments
Measuring energy, mass, and hydrogen presence
Drilling lunar regolith and analyzing water content

Technical Highlights

Rover can travel distances and climb slopes up to 25° inclination
Charging system planned for pre- and post-sample collection
Possibility to extend the mission life by one additional year
Future exploration to include Moon’s far side if conditions permit

Background & Timeline

March 2025: Mission approved by Indian Cabinet
2023: India’s Chandrayaan-3 successfully landed on Moon’s south pole
Upcoming: Chandrayaan-4 to be a sample return mission

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	India-Japan’s LUPEX Mission Enters Design Phase
Mission Name	Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX
Mission Objective	Explore water/water-ice on Moon’s south pole
Launch Date	2027–28 (Planned)
Launch Vehicle	Japanese H3 Rocket
Duration	100 days (extendable)
Rover Specs	350 kg, 7 instruments, slope-climbing capability
Contributions	ESA (mass spectrometer), NASA (neutron spectrometer)

List of Popes in the 21st Century, Know About Them

The Pope is the head of the Roman Catholic Church and a spiritual leader for millions of people around the world. In the 21st century, the Church has had three Popes, each with their own unique role and message. These popes have guided the Church through modern times, teaching about peace, love and faith. Let’s learn more about them in this article.

Who is Pope?

The pope is a spiritual leader of the Catholic Church. Catholic believe he is the successor of Saint Peter, who was one of Jesus’ closest followers and the first bishop of Rome. The pope guides people in faith, morals and church leadership. He also meets world leaders and other bishops to help lead the Church.

List of Popes in the 21st Century

The list below shows the popes who led the Catholic Church in the 21st century, with important detail about their time and contributions.

Pontiff Number	Pontification Dates	Name	Personal Name	Age at Start/ End	Motto
265	19 April 2005 – 28 February 2013	Benedict XVI/ BENEDICTVS Sextus Decimus	Joseph Alois Ratzinger	78/ 85	Cooperators of the truth
266	13 March 2013 – 21 April 2025	Francis/ FRANCISCVS	Jorge Mario Bergoglio, S.J.	76/88	By having mercy and by choosing
267	08 May 2025 – Present	Leo XIV/LEO Quartus Decimus	Robert Francis Prevost, O.S.A.	69/ –	In the one, (we are) one

Pope Benedict XVI

Pope Benedict XVI became pope in April 2005. He was the first German pope in many centuries. He liked Latin and brought back some older church traditions. He also allowed special groups like former Anglicans to join the Church. In 2013, he did something very rare – he resigned from the papacy. After that, he was called Pope Emeritus.

Pope Francis

Pope Francis became pope in March 2013. He was the first pope from South America and the first Jesuit pope. He chose the name Francis to show he cared about the poor and the environment. He wrote a famous letter about protecting nature called Laudato si’. He also worked to bring peace between the USA and Cuba. He was the first pope to hold a Mass on the Arabian Peninsula.

Pope Leo XIV

Pope Leo XIV became pope in May 2025. He is the first pope from the United States and from North America. He also belongs to the Augustinian religious group. His motto shows a message of unity – being one together in faith.

Pushkar Kumbh Returns to Keshav Prayag After 12 Years

After a 12-year wait, the Pushkar Kumbh has commenced at Keshav Prayag in Mana village, Chamoli district, Uttarakhand. Rooted in ancient Vaishnavite traditions, the event coincides with the entry of planet Jupiter into the Gemini sign, a rare celestial occurrence. Thousands of devotees, particularly from South India, have gathered at the sacred confluence of the Alaknanda and Saraswati rivers for spiritual rituals and blessings.

Why in News?

The Pushkar Kumbh began on May 16, 2025, in Keshav Prayag, marking its return after 12 years. The district administration has taken special steps to manage the influx of devotees and improve pilgrimage infrastructure.

About Pushkar Kumbh

A religious congregation held when Jupiter (Guru) enters the Gemini (Mithun) zodiac sign, every 12 years.
Celebrated at Keshav Prayag, the confluence of Alaknanda and Saraswati rivers in Mana village, Chamoli.
It is primarily attended by followers of the Vaishnavite tradition, especially from South India.

Significance

Considered an auspicious event for bathing and offering prayers at a holy river confluence.
Believed to bring spiritual merit (Punya) to participants.
Strengthens cultural and spiritual bonds between North and South Indian traditions.

Administrative Measures

District Magistrate Sandeep Tiwari has overseen:
Improvement of the pedestrian route to the site.
Installation of multi-language signboards for better accessibility.
Regular monitoring by tehsil administration for crowd and event management.

Location & Static Facts

Keshav Prayag is located in Mana village, which is considered the last Indian village near the Indo-China border.
The Alaknanda River is one of the major tributaries of the Ganga, while the Saraswati River, though mostly invisible, is revered in Hindu mythology.

Impact

Increase in pilgrim traffic to Badrinath Dham and Mana village.
Boost to religious tourism and local economy.
Revitalization of traditional practices and heritage sites.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	Pushkar Kumbh Returns to Keshav Prayag After 12 Years
Event	Pushkar Kumbh 2025
Location	Keshav Prayag, Mana village, Chamoli, Uttarakhand
Celestial Trigger	Jupiter enters Gemini (every 12 years)
Religious Affiliation	Vaishnavite tradition
River Confluence	Alaknanda and Saraswati rivers
Administrative Actions	Pedestrian path upgraded, multilingual signage, monitoring arrangements
Cultural Significance	Pilgrimage from South India, promotion of spiritual unity

“Samudrayaan: India’s First Manned Deep Ocean Mission to Launch by 2026”

India is poised to make a significant leap in marine exploration with the launch of its first manned deep ocean mission, ‘Samudrayaan’, scheduled for 2026. Utilizing the indigenously developed submersible vehicle, MATSYA 6000, this mission aims to explore oceanic depths up to 6,000 meters, unlocking valuable insights into marine biodiversity and resource potential.

Why in News?

The announcement of the Samudrayaan mission highlights India’s growing capabilities in deep-sea exploration technology and marine research. With the mission launch slated within the next two years, it emphasizes India’s commitment to advancing its Blue Economy and joining the exclusive group of nations capable of manned deep ocean expeditions. This aligns with sustainable development goals and strategic interests in ocean resource management.

Aim and Objectives of Samudrayaan Mission

To develop and deploy an indigenously designed manned submersible capable of deep ocean exploration at 6,000 meters.
To collect deep-sea samples for scientific research, focusing on marine biodiversity, ocean geology, and chemistry.
To explore living and non-living marine resources including minerals and polymetallic nodules.
To demonstrate India’s advanced engineering capabilities in designing high-pressure underwater vehicles.
To potentially pave the way for deep-sea tourism in the future.
To strengthen India’s strategic position in global ocean research and diplomacy.

Background

Samudrayaan is part of the larger Deep Ocean Mission (DOM), launched in 2021 by the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
DOM has a budget of ₹4,077 crore over five years and is aligned with SDG-14 (Life Below Water).
The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai, is spearheading the mission and technological development.

Key Features of MATSYA 6000

It is a fourth-generation manned submersible vehicle, indigenously developed.
Can carry three crew members to depths of 6,000 meters.
Has an operational endurance of 12 hours and emergency endurance of up to 96 hours.
Deployment and recovery of the submersible will be handled by India’s research vessel, Sagar Nidhi.

Significance and Impact

Scientific Research: Deep-sea sample collection will enhance understanding of unexplored marine ecosystems and geological phenomena.
Resource Exploration: Exploration of polymetallic nodules and minerals can boost India’s resource base.
Technological Advancement: The mission showcases India’s capabilities in high-pressure ocean engineering.
Strategic Importance: Enhances India’s position in ocean diplomacy and global maritime research.
International Standing: Joins India with countries like the US, Russia, France, Japan, and China with manned deep-sea exploration abilities.

About the Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)

DOM encompasses six components including manned submersible development, biodiversity exploration, mining, climate advisory services, marine biology research, and advanced ocean observation.
It supports India’s Blue Economy by promoting sustainable exploration and utilization of ocean resources.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	“Samudrayaan: India’s First Manned Deep Ocean Mission to Launch by 2026”
Mission Name	Samudrayaan
Launch Year	2026
Developed By	National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT)
Submersible Vehicle	MATSYA 6000
Depth Capability	6,000 meters
Crew Capacity	3 persons
Operational Endurance	12 hours
Emergency Endurance	96 hours
Deployment Vessel	Sagar Nidhi
Budget (Deep Ocean Mission)	₹4,077 crore (5 years)
Strategic Importance	Enhances India’s global ocean research status
Alignment	Supports SDG-14 (Life Below Water)

INS Vikrant vs Liaoning: Aircraft Carrier Capabilities Compared

Aircraft carriers are symbols of naval power and strategic dominance, often serving as floating airbases capable of projecting force across oceans. Two notable aircraft carriers in Asia are INS Vikrant (IAC-1), India’s first indigenously built carrier, and Liaoning, China’s first operational aircraft carrier, refurbished from the Soviet-era Varyag. This article explores these two platforms in detail, comparing their design, capabilities, operational roles, and strategic significance.

1. Origins and Development

INS Vikrant represents a significant milestone for India, being its first homegrown aircraft carrier, designed and built by Cochin Shipyard Limited. Commissioned in 2022, Vikrant symbolizes India’s growing self-reliance in defense manufacturing.
Liaoning, on the other hand, began as an incomplete Soviet vessel, acquired by China in the 1990s. It was refurbished and commissioned into the People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) in 2012. Though based on an older design, it served as a foundation for China’s carrier program.

2. Design and Displacement

INS Vikrant displaces around 45,000 tons and features a short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) configuration. It uses a ski-jump ramp to launch aircraft and arrestor wires for landings, similar to its predecessor, INS Vikramaditya.
Liaoning has a slightly higher displacement at approximately 58,000 tons and also employs a STOBAR system. However, being based on Soviet-era design, its architecture is bulkier, with a prominent island structure and thicker armor.

3. Air Wing and Operational Capabilities

INS Vikrant is designed to operate around 30 aircraft, including MiG-29K fighters and Kamov-31 helicopters, with future integration expected for HAL TEDBF and MH-60R Seahawks. The carrier includes modern aviation facilities, a dedicated aircraft maintenance area, and advanced radar systems.
Liaoning can carry around 40 aircraft, primarily J-15 fighters, which are naval variants derived from the Russian Su-33. However, these aircraft are heavier and face limitations during take-off from the ski-jump ramp, especially when fully armed or fueled.

4. Propulsion and Endurance

INS Vikrant uses a conventional propulsion system, powered by four General Electric LM2500 gas turbines, allowing a top speed of around 28 knots and significant operational range suitable for extended missions in the Indian Ocean.
Liaoning also uses conventional propulsion, powered by steam turbines, and achieves similar speeds. However, due to its older engineering lineage, its endurance and maintenance requirements are more demanding.

5. Combat Systems and Electronics

INS Vikrant features a suite of indigenous and modern electronics, including the EL/M-2248 MF-STAR radar and advanced combat management systems. It is also equipped with Barak 8 surface-to-air missiles for self-defense.
Liaoning is equipped with Type 348 radar systems, close-in weapon systems (CIWS), and a basic air defense suite. Although capable, it lacks the advanced network-centric warfare integration seen on more modern platforms.

6. Strategic Roles and Naval Doctrine

INS Vikrant enhances India’s ability to project power in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and supports blue-water navy ambitions. It provides a platform for quick deployment, deterrence, and maritime security.
Liaoning, in contrast, serves as a training and experimentation platform for China. It helped lay the groundwork for China’s newer carriers like Shandong and Fujian, which aim for more advanced capabilities including electromagnetic catapults (EMALS).

President Murmu Invokes Article 143 Over Governors’ Bill Assent Powers

In a rare constitutional move, President Droupadi Murmu has invoked Article 143 of the Constitution to seek the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion on a range of legal questions concerning the powers and conduct of Governors and the President in relation to State legislation under Articles 200 and 201. This Presidential Reference stems from a recent Supreme Court judgment criticizing delays by the Tamil Nadu Governor in granting assent to Bills passed by the State Legislature.

Why in News?

On May 13, 2025, President Murmu referred 14 constitutional questions to the Supreme Court after a two-judge Bench judgment (April 8, 2025) deemed the Tamil Nadu Governor’s delay in Bill assent as unconstitutional. The move is significant as it seeks to resolve long-standing ambiguities regarding the discretionary powers of Governors and the President, and the limits of judicial intervention under Article 142.

Key Questions Raised in the Presidential Reference

What are the Constitutional options before a Governor when a Bill is presented to him under Article 200 for assent?
Is the Governor bound by the aid and advice tendered by the Council of Ministers?
Is the exercise of Constitutional discretion by the Governor under Article 200 justiciable?
Is Article 361 of the Constitution (immunity given to President and Governors from legal action while in office) an absolute bar to judicial review in relation to the actions of a Governor under Article 200?
In the absence of any Constitutionally prescribed time limit or manner of exercise of powers by a Governor, can time limits be imposed and manner of exercise of powers be prescribed through judicial orders?
Is the exercise of Constitutional discretion by the President under Article 201 (dealing with Bills reserved by a Governor for consideration by the President) justiciable?
Can judicial orders impose timelines and manner of exercise of powers by the President under Article 201?
Is the President required to take advice from the Supreme Court when a Bill is reserved by a Governor for the President’s assent?
Are decisions of the Governor and the President under Articles 200 and 201, respectively, justiciable at a stage prior to even the Bill in question becoming a law. Is it permissible for the courts to undertake judicial adjudication over the contents of a Bill, in any manner, before it becomes law?
Can the Constitutional powers of the President/Governors be substituted by a judicial order exercising Article 142?
Is a law made by the State Legislature a law in force without the assent of the Governor?
Is it not mandatory for a Supreme Court Bench to examine if a case involved substantial questions of law regarding interpretation of the Constitution and refer the case to a Bench of a minimum five judges under Article 145(3)?
Is Article 142 limited to matters of procedural law or does it extend to issuing directions “contrary to or inconsistent with existing substantive or procedural provisions of the Constitution”?
Is there a bar on the Supreme Court from deciding between the Centre and States other than by way of filing an original suit under Article 131?

Background and Trigger

The issue arises from a petition by the Tamil Nadu government against Governor R.N. Ravi’s delay in acting on 10 re-passed Bills.
The Supreme Court, invoking Article 142, held the Governor’s inaction illegal and deemed the Bills to have received assent.
This verdict prompted the Presidential Reference to test the validity and scope of Article 142 and assess the boundaries of judicial overreach.

Static & Legal Provisions Discussed

Article 200: Governor’s options on State Bills — assent, withhold assent, or reserve for President.
Article 201: Bills reserved for the President’s consideration.
Article 143: President’s power to refer legal questions to SC for advisory opinion.
Article 142: Supreme Court’s power to do complete justice.
Article 145(3): Cases involving interpretation of the Constitution must be heard by at least a 5-judge Bench.
Article 361: Immunity to President and Governors from legal proceedings during tenure.

Significance of the Reference

Clarifies constitutional roles of President and Governors in the lawmaking process.
May set binding timelines for assent to prevent legislative paralysis.
Addresses the balance of power between executive discretion and judicial activism.
Influences future Centre-State relations and cooperative federalism.

Summary/Static	Details
Why in the news?	President Murmu Invokes Article 143 Over Governors’ Bill Assent Powers
Presidential Reference Date	May 13, 2025
Invoked Article	Article 143 (Advisory Jurisdiction of SC)
Trigger Event	SC judgment on April 8, 2025, on TN Governor’s delay in Bill assent
Key Articles in Question	Articles 142, 145(3), 200, 201, 361
Total Questions Raised	14
Controversial Concept	“Deemed Assent” of State Bills
Implication	Re-defining roles of President and Governors in State legislation process