States and Capitals

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States and Capitals – How Many States in India?

India, a vast South Asian nation and the world’s seventh-largest by land area, is divided into 28 states and 8 union territories, each with its own capital. These states and territories are further segmented into districts. New Delhi, situated in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, serves as India’s administrative, political, and cultural hub.

The states and capitals of India weave a rich and diverse tapestry, reflecting the country’s deep cultural heritage, traditions, and innovations. Exploring these regions offers a fascinating journey through time, blending ancient legacies with modern advancements, tradition with contemporary influence, and showcasing India’s remarkable unity in diversity.

In 1956, India reorganized its states according to linguistic demographics. Today, the country consists of 28 states and 8 Union Territories, home to nearly 400 cities. Among these, eight major metropolitan cities—Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, and Pune—are prominent. The Prime Minister has introduced a plan to develop 100 smart cities across the nation, with Indore being recognized as the Smart City for four consecutive years. Discover India’s dynamic urban landscape and its focus on modernization.

How many states in India?

India is the 7th largest country in the world by land area and the 2nd most populated. The country is divided into states and union territories so that the government can function properly. Below is a list of all 28 states, their capitals and the year they were formed.

S.NO	State	Capital	CM	Governor
1	Andhra Pradesh	Amaravati	Sri Nara Chandrababu Naidu	S. Abdul Nazer
2	Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	Pema Khandu	Kaiwalya Trivikram Parnaik
3	Assam	Dispur	Himanta Biswa Sarma	Lakshman Prasad Acharya
4	Bihar	Patna	Nitish Kumar	Arif Mohammed Khan
5	Chhattisgarh	Raipur	Vishnu Deo Sai	Ramen Deka
6	Goa	Panaji	Pramod Sawant	P.S. Sreedharan Pillai
7	Gujarat	Gandhinagar	Bhupendra Patel	Acharya Dev Vrat
8	Haryana	Chandigarh	Nayab Singh Saini	Bandaru Dattatraya
9	Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu	Shiv Pratap Shukla
10	Jharkhand	Ranchi	Hemant Soren	Santosh Kumar Gangwar
11	Karnataka	Bengaluru	Siddaramaiah	Thaawarchand Gehlot
12	Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	Pinarayi Vijayan	Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar
13	Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	Mohan Yadav	Mangubhai Chhaganbhai Patel
14	Maharashtra	Mumbai	Devendra Fadnavis	C.P. Radhakrishnan
15	Manipur	Imphal	N. Biren Singh	Ajay Kumar Bhalla
16	Meghalaya	Shillong	Conrad Kongkal Sangma	C H Vijayashankar
17	Mizoram	Aizawl	Lalduhoma	General (Dr.) Vijay Kumar Singh, PVSM, AVSM, YSM (Retd.)
18	Nagaland	Kohima	Neiphiu Rio	La. Ganesan
19	Odisha	Bhubaneswar	Mohan Charan Majhi	Dr. Hari Babu Kambhampati
20	Punjab	Chandigarh	Bhagwant Singh Mann	Gulab Chand Kataria
21	Rajasthan	Jaipur	Bhajan Lal Sharma	Haribhau Kisanrao Bagde
22	Sikkim	Gangtok	PS Golay	Om Prakash Mathur
23	Tamil Nadu	Chennai	M. K. Stalin	R. N. Ravi
24	Telangana	Hyderabad	Anumula Revanth Reddy	Jishnu Dev Varma
25	Tripura	Agartala	Dr. Manik Saha	Indra Sena Reddy Nallu
26	Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	Yogi Aditya Nath	Anandiben Patel
27	Uttarakhand	Dehradun	Pushkar Singh Dhami	Lt. Gen. Gurmit Singh
28	West Bengal	Kolkata	Mamata Banerjee	Dr. C.V. Ananda Bose

Union Territories of India and Their Capitals

India has 8 union territories that are managed by the central government. Some of them have their own legislative assemblies. Below is the of these union territories and their capitals:

S.NO	Union Territories	Capital	CM	Lt. Governor
1	Andaman and Nicobar Island	Port Blair	NA	D K Joshi
2	Chandigarh	Chandigarh	NA	Banwarilal Purohit
3	Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	Daman	NA	Praful Patel
4	Delhi	Delhi	Rekha Gupta	Vinai Kumar Saxena
5	Ladakh	NA	NA	B. D. Mishra
6	Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	NA	Praful Patel
7	Jammu and Kashmir	NA	Omar Abdullah	Manoj Sinha
8	Puducherry	Pondicherry	N. Rangaswamy	C. P. Radhakrishnan

Difference Between States and Union Territories

India is divided into states and Union Territories for administrative purposes. They are in different in how they are governed.

Basis of Difference	States	Union Territories
Head of Administration	Governor	Administrator or Lieutenant Governor
Government Type	Elected by the People	Managed by the central government
Powers	Shares power with the central government.	Controlled directly by the central government.

Indian States and their Languages

India is a country with a rich and diverse linguistic heritage. There are over 121 languages spoken in India, and each state has its unique linguistic landscape. The Indian Constitution recognizes 22 languages as “scheduled languages,” which are given special status in government and education.

S. No.	States	Language
1	Andhra Pradesh	Telugu and Urdu
2	Arunachal Pradesh	Miji, Apotanji, Merdukpen, Tagin, Adi, Honpa, Banging-Nishi
3	Assam	Assamese
4	Bihar	Hindi
5	Chhattisgarh	Hindi
6	Goa	Marathi Konkani
7	Gujarat	Gujarati
8	Haryana	Hindi
9	Himachal Pradesh	Hindi and Pahari
10	Jharkhand	Hindi
11	Karnataka	Kannada
12	Kerala	Malayalam
13	Madhya Pradesh	Hindi
14	Maharashtra	Marathi
15	Manipur	Manipuri
16	Meghalaya	Khashi, Jaintia, And Garo
17	Mizoram	Mizo and English
18	Nagaland	Ao, Konyak, Angami, Sema, and Lotha
19	Odisha	Oriya
20	Punjab	Punjabi
21	Rajasthan	Rajasthani and Hindi
22	Sikkim	Bhutia, Hindi, Nepali, Lepcha, Limbu
23	Tamil Nadu	Tamil
24	Telangana	Telugu
25	Tripura	Bengali, Tripuri, Manipuri, Kakborak
26	Uttar Pradesh	Hindi
27	Uttarakhand	Hindi
28	West Bengal	Bengali

Some Key Facts About Indian States

Each state in India is unique and has something special. Here are some interesting facts about a few states:

Andhra Pradesh: Famous for spicy food and historical sites like Charminar.
Assam: Know for tea gardens and Kaziranga National Park, home to the one-horned rhinoceros.
Bihar: A place with a rich history, home to Bodh Gaya and the ancient city of Pataliputra.
Goa: Popular for beautiful beaches and a lively nightlife.
Kerala: Famous for its backwaters, Ayurveda treatments and lush green nature.
Maharashtra: Mumbai, the financial capital, is also home to Bollywood.
Himachal Pradesh: Known for stunning hill stations and adventure sports.
Tamil Nadu: Famous for classical dance forms and grand temples.

Where Is Kamchatka Peninsula? Why Is It Prone to Earthquakes and Tsunamis?

Introduction

Kamchatka is a vast, wild, and geologically remarkable peninsula in the Far East of Russia. Known for its rugged terrain, volcanic activity, and frequent earthquakes, Kamchatka recently came into the global spotlight due to an 8.8 magnitude earthquake, placing it among the most powerful earthquakes recorded in history. This article explores the location, geography, climate, seismic history, and international significance of Kamchatka in an accessible, easy-to-understand way.

Where Is Kamchatka Located?

Kamchatka is a peninsula in Russia’s Far East, stretching about 1,250km from north to south. It is part of the Asian continent but is physically separated from the Russian mainland by a narrow isthmus.

To the east: Kamchatka is bordered by the Pacific Ocean.
To the west: It is flanked by the Sea of Okhotsk.

Its isolated position makes it one of Russia’s least-populated areas, largely untouched by industry or mass development. This wilderness and isolation contribute to Kamchatka’s distinctive natural beauty and biological richness.

Climate and Natural Features

The climate in Kamchatka is harsh and unique:

Winters: Long, extremely cold, with heavy snow.
Summers: Cool and rainy, often misty.

These weather patterns help preserve Kamchatka’s extensive forests, wild rivers, and 300+ volcanoes (including some of the most active in the world). Its landscape is dramatic, with vast tundra, steaming geysers, and unique plants and animals. These factors make Kamchatka a favorite destination for nature enthusiasts and adventurers.

Kamchatka on the Pacific “Ring of Fire”

Kamchatka is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire—a zone famous for intense earthquake and volcanic activity. The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped band running around the Pacific Ocean’s edges, and places along it (including Japan, Alaska, and California) experience frequent shaking and eruptions.

Earthquakes: Kamchatka is one of the most earthquake-prone regions on the planet. It regularly endures seismic jolts—small and large alike.
Volcanoes: Many of Kamchatka’s volcanoes are active, creating both mesmerizing landscapes and significant natural hazards.

The 8.8 Magnitude Earthquake

A recent earthquake measuring 8.8 on the Richter scale was one of the world’s largest ever recorded. This event triggered tsunamis that reached shorelines on the other side of the Pacific, impacting places as distant as the United States, Japan, and several countries in the Americas.

Tsunami warnings were issued for regions including Hawaii, Alaska, Oregon, California, and the west coasts of Canada and South America.
In the past, Kamchatka has been struck by even stronger earthquakes (such as the 1952 9.0 magnitude event), which caused vast tsunamis but few fatalities due to the remote, sparsely populated nature of the region.

International and Cultural Impact

The magnitude of Kamchatka’s recent earthquake prompted warnings and evacuations around the Pacific Rim, emphasizing the global impact of events in this isolated region.

Kamchatka’s rugged wilderness and volcanic background have also landed it pop culture fame—for example, appearing as a key location in Stranger Things Season 4.

Key Facts about Kamchatka

Feature	Details
Continent	Asia
Country	Russia
Size	1,250km long
Coastlines	Pacific Ocean (East), Sea of Okhotsk (West)
Climate	Cold, snowy winters; wet, cool summers
Seismic Zone	Pacific “Ring of Fire”
Natural Hazards	Earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes
Major Recent Event	8.8 magnitude earthquake
Pop Culture	Featured in Stranger Things Season 4

Top-10 Largest Companies of India by 2025, Check the List

In 2025, India’s biggest companies continue to show their strength both at home and around the world. From technology and banking to energy and telecom, these leading businesses are shaping the country’s economy and building a strong global presence. Reliance Industries remains at the top, proving once again that Indian companies are ready to compete with the best in the world.

Forbes Global 2000 List 2025

India has made a strong mark in the latest Forbes Global 2000 list, which ranks the biggest publicly traded companies in the world. This year, 70 Indian companies made it to the list, showing the country’s growing power in the global business world.

Together, these Indian companies have achieved:

$1.3 trillion in total sales
$126 billion in total profits
$5.5 trillion in total assets
$2.3 trillion in market value

Reliance Industries Still at the Top

Leading the Indian pack is Reliance Industries, headed by billionaire Mukesh Ambani.

Sales: $114.1 billion
Profit: $8.24 billion
Global Rank #45 (moved up four spots from last year)

Reliance remains India’s largest company and continues to expand its presence worldwide.

HDFC Bank Climbs to Second Place

India’s most profitable bank, HDFC Bank, has made big progress this year:

Global Rank #53 (up 12 spots)
Profit: $8.37 billion
Sales: $55.7 billion

This growth helped HDFC overtake the State Bank of India for the second spot in India.

State Bank of India Holds Steady Globally

The State Bank of India (SBI) retained its #55 global rank but dropped to third place in India.

Sales: $77.53 billion
Profit: $9.48 billion

Tata Group Dominates With Six Companies

The Tata Group continues to be a major force, with six companies making the list:

Tata Motors – #8 in India
Tata Consultancy Services – #13 in India
Tata Steel – #31 in India
Titan – #50 in India
Tata Power – #55 in India
Trent – #70 in India

Top-10 Largest Companies of India by 2025

Reliance Industries, headed by Mukesh Ambani, stands as the largest company in the world with the total sales and profit of $114.1 billion and $8.24 billion respectively, followed by HDFC Bank, and State Bank of India.

Here is the list of top-10 largest companies in the world by 2025:

Rank	Company	Sales (billion $)	Profit (billion $)	Assets (billion $)	Market Value (billion $)
1.	Reliance Industries	114.1	8.24	228.16	205.91
2.	HDFC Bank	55.7	8.37	513.9	171.09
3.	State Bank of India	77.53	9.48	846.3	83.43
4.	Life Insurance Corp. of India	107.19	5.15	682.46	58.6
5.	ICICI Bank	34.84	6.04	309.13	117.09
6.	Oil & Natural Gas	78.61	4.65	90.41	36.27
7.	Axis Bank	18.44	3.32	193.86	42.25
8.	Bharti Airtel	19.45	2.94	58.5	121.07
9.	Tata Motors	52.95	3.8	46.62	28.21
10.	NTPC	22.22	2.63	58.74	40.44

How the Ranking Works?

The Forbes Global 2000 list is based on four main factors:

Sales – Total revenue earned by the company
Profits – Net earnings after expenses
Assets – Value of everything the company owns
Market Value – Total worth of the company’s shares on the stock market

The data is collected from the latest 12 months of financial reports, as of April 25, 2025.

List of Strongest Earthquakes in the World Ever Recorded

Earthquakes are among the most powerful natural disasters on Earth, capable of shaking the ground, destroying cities and changing landscapes within seconds. Throughout history, some earthquakes have been so strong that they left lasting marks on the world. These massive quakes have caused widespread damage, tsunamis and loss of life, reminding us of nature’s incredible force. Here’s a look at the strongest earthquakes ever recorded.

What is an Earthquake?

An earthquake occurs when the Earths’ crust shakes due to a sudden release of energy. This energy travels as seismic waves. It usually occurs along a fault, which is a crack in the Earth’s crust where large blocks of rock shift or slide past each other, causing the ground to move.

List of Strongest Earthquakes in the World

Earthquakes are powerful natural events that can shake the ground, damage cities and trigger tsunamis. Some earthquakes in history have been so strong that they are recorded as the largest by magnitude. Here’s look at the strongest earthquakes every recorded:

Rank	Event	Location	Magnitude	Date
1.	2004 Indian Ocean earthquake	Indonesia, Sumatra, Indian Ocean	9.2 – 9.3	December 26, 2004
2.	2011 Tōhoku earthquake	Japan, Tōhoku, Pacific Ocean	9.0-9.1	March 11, 2011
3.	2010 Chile Earthquake	Chile, Maule	8.8	February 27, 2010
4.	2025 Kamchatka Peninsula earthquake	Russia, Kamchatka	8.8	July 30, 2025
5.	2005 Nias – Simeulue earthquake	Indonesia, Sumatra	8.6	March 28, 2005
6.	2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes	Indonesia, Sumatra	8.6	April 11, 2012
7.	2007 Bengkulu Earthquake	Indonesia, Sumatra	8.5	September 12, 2007

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

On 26 December 2004, at 07:58 local time, a massive 9.2 – 9.3 magnitude earthquake struck off the west coast of Aceh, northern Sumatra, Indonesia. Known as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, it occurred along the fault between the Burma and Indian plates. This undersea megathrust quake reached a Mercalli intensity of IX in some areas and triggered one of the deadliest tsunamis in recorded history.

2011 Tōhoku earthquake

On 11 March 2011, a massive 9.0 – 9.1 magnitude undersea megathrust earthquake struck off Japan’s Tōhoku coast, lasting about six minutes. Known as the Great Japan Earthquake (3.11), it triggered a devastating tsunami with waves up to 40.5 meters high, reaching 10 km inland. The disaster caused nearly 20,000 deaths, thousands injured or missing and massive displacement. Freezing weather and snowfall worsened rescue efforts, making it Japan’s strongest recorded quake and one of the world’s most powerful in modern history.

2010 Chile Earthquake

On 27 February 2010, an 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck off central Chile’s coast at 03:34 local time, lasting about three minutes. Known as the 27F earthquake, it triggered a tsunami and caused severe shaking across six Chilean regions, affecting nearly 80% of the population. Cities like Concepción, Arauco, and Coronel experienced the most violent tremors, with impacts felt as far as Argentina and even southern Peru. It was Chile’s largest quake since 1960, caused by water pressure buildup between tectonic plates.

2025 Kamchatka Peninsula earthquake

On 29 July 2025, at 23:24 UTC (30 July local time), a massive Mw 8.8 megathrust earthquake struck off the eastern coast of Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula. It is the strongest earthquake recorded since the 2011 Tōhoku disaster and ranks among the sixth most powerful ever, tying with the 1906 Ecuador – Colombia and 2010 Chile quakes. The powerful tremor, caused by a major tectonic plate shift, posed significant tsunami risks and impacted coastal regions with severe shaking and potential infrastructure damage.

2005 Nias – Simeulue earthquake

On 28 March 2005, at 23:09 local time, the Nias-Simeulue earthquake struck off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia, with a magnitude of 8.6 Centered in the Sunda megathrust subduction zone, it was one of the strongest quakes since 1900. At least 915 people died, mostly on Nias Island, and hundreds of buildings were destroyed. The quake caused a small tsunami, widespread power outages, and was felt as far as Bangkok, Thailand. Several strong aftershocks followed, adding to the region’s devastation.

2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes

On 11 April 2012, two powerful undersea earthquakes, measuring 8.6 and 8.2 in magnitude, struck near Aceh, Indonesia. Occurring within minutes of each other, they were the largest strike-slip earthquakes ever recorded and unusual for occurring within a tectonic plate. Tsunami warnings were issued across the Indian Ocean, causing widespread concern, but were later cancelled. Despite their strength, the quakes caused relatively limited damage compared to other major events, though they were felt in several countries around the region.

2007 Bengkulu Earthquake

The 2007 Bengkulu earthquakes were a series of powerful megathrust quakes that struck off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, along the Sunda Trench. Three quakes measured around magnitude 7 or higher, with the strongest reaching 8.4, ranking among the top 20 largest earthquakes ever recorded. Tsunami bulletins were issued for the affected areas, prompting coastal evacuations. While significant damage occurred in Bengkulu and surrounding regions, the impact was less catastrophic than feared, though many communities were left dealing with destruction and disruption.

A Journey Of Five Years of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, India’s third education policy since Independence, was introduced as a transformative reform to modernize the education system. Five years since its launch, the policy has made noticeable strides in school education and higher education, but several reforms remain stuck due to institutional delays and Centre-state disputes.

Reshaping School Education

Transition from 10+2 to New Structure

One of the biggest shifts under NEP has been the replacement of the traditional 10+2 system with a new four-stage framework,

Foundational stage (pre-primary to class 2)
Preparatory stage (classes 3 to 5)
Middle stage (classes 6 to 8)
Secondary stage (classes 9 to 12)

The National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE 2023) has outlined clear learning outcomes and competencies for each stage.

Integrated Textbooks and Curriculum

The NCERT has rolled out new textbooks for classes 1-8, which integrate subjects like history, geography, political science, and economics into a single social science textbook, moving away from fragmented subject-wise learning. Textbooks for classes 9-12 are expected soon.

Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)

Universal Pre-Primary Education Goal

NEP aims to achieve universal pre-primary education by 2030. To support this, NCERT’s Jaadui Pitara kits and a national ECCE curriculum have been introduced.

Minimum Age for Class 1

States like Delhi, Karnataka, and Kerala have enforced the minimum age of six years for admission to class 1. This has led to a drop in enrolments — from 2.16 crore to 1.87 crore in 2023-24. About 73% of students entering class 1 had prior preschool experience.

Key Challenges

The main hurdles include,

Training Anganwadi workers to improve teaching quality.
Strengthening infrastructure in early learning centres.

Strengthening Foundational Skills

The NIPUN Bharat Mission, launched in 2021, focuses on ensuring universal literacy and numeracy by the end of class 3.
A recent survey showed 64% proficiency in language and 60% in mathematics.
While this reflects some progress, the mission is still far from its universal goals.

Flexible Learning Through Credits

Academic Bank of Credits (ABC)

NEP introduced a digital system allowing students to store credits and switch courses or institutions without losing progress.

One-year study earns a certificate,
Two years earn a diploma,
Four years earn a multidisciplinary degree.

National Credit Framework (NCrF)

Extending flexibility to schools, the NCrF allows skill-based learning hours to be counted as credits. The CBSE has launched a pilot programme for this system.

Higher Education Reforms

Common University Entrance Test (CUET)

Introduced in 2022, the CUET has become a centralized gateway for undergraduate admissions, reducing the stress of multiple entrance exams.

Global Outreach of Indian Institutes

IIT Madras (Zanzibar), IIT Delhi (Abu Dhabi), and IIM Ahmedabad (Dubai) have opened international campuses.
Foreign universities like the University of Southampton and others at GIFT City, Gujarat, have started operations in India, with more approvals underway.

Four-Year Undergraduate Degrees

NEP’s vision of a four-year UG programme with multiple exit points is being implemented in central universities and Kerala, though many colleges face faculty shortages and infrastructure constraints.

Language and Medium of Instruction

The NEP encourages teaching in the mother tongue or regional language until class 5.

CBSE has directed schools to begin from pre-primary to class 2, with optional continuation till class 5.
NCERT is preparing textbooks in more Indian languages.

However, the three-language formula remains controversial. States like Tamil Nadu oppose it, citing concerns of Hindi imposition.

Ongoing and Pending Reforms

Changes in Board Exams

From 2026, CBSE class 10 students will be allowed to appear for board exams twice a year to reduce exam pressure. Karnataka has already experimented with this model.

Holistic Progress Report Cards

PARAKH, an NCERT body, has designed report cards that assess not just marks but also peer and self-evaluations. However, many state boards have yet to adopt them.

Teacher Education Reforms Stalled

The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education is still pending. The proposed four-year integrated B.Ed course under the Integrated Teacher Education Programme (ITEP) is facing resistance from colleges offering existing courses like B.El.Ed.

Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) Delayed

The plan to replace the University Grants Commission (UGC) with a single umbrella regulator — HECI — is still under drafting.

Centre-State Conflicts

The implementation of NEP has been marred by Centre-state tensions,

States like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal refused to sign MoUs for PM-SHRI schools, citing autonomy concerns.
Tamil Nadu opposed both the three-language formula and the four-year UG structure.
The Centre withheld Samagra Shiksha funds from some states, linking funds to NEP reforms. Tamil Nadu has challenged this in the Supreme Court.
Karnataka is preparing its own state education policy, scrapping the earlier four-year UG structure.

What is a Tsunami? – Definition & Overview

A tsunami is a series of huge ocean waves caused by the sudden movement of large amounts of water. This can happen due to underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Unlike regular ocean waves caused by wind, tsunamis carry immense energy across long distances and can flood coastlines within minutes.

Tsunamis are sometimes mistakenly called tidal waves, but they are not related to tides. The word “tsunami” comes from Japanese, meaning “harbor wave.”

Causes of Tsunami – Nature’s Giant Waves Explained

Tsunamis can be triggered by different natural disasters:

Underwater Earthquakes – Most tsunamis happen when tectonic plates shift suddenly under the ocean floor.
Volcanic Eruptions – Explosive eruptions displace large amounts of water.
Landslides – Massive underwater landslides can cause big waves.
Meteorite Impacts – Rare, but can cause mega-tsunamis if a large object hits the ocean.

When the sea floor suddenly moves, the energy travels through water, creating powerful waves that can travel at speeds up to 800 km/h.

How a Tsunami is Formed – Step-by-Step Process

Trigger Event – An earthquake, volcano, or landslide displaces water.
Wave Generation – Energy moves outward from the disturbance in all directions.
Wave Travel – Waves move across deep ocean with little height, making them hard to detect.
Wave Shoaling – As waves approach shallow water, they slow down and grow taller.
Coastal Impact – Waves crash into the coast, causing floods and destruction.

Major Tsunamis in History – Timeline & Impact

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami – Over 230,000 people died in 14 countries.
2011 Japan Tsunami – Triggered by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake, killed 20,000 people and caused the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
1883 Krakatoa Tsunami – Volcanic eruption killed over 36,000 people in Indonesia.

The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami – Lessons Learned

The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history. It started after a magnitude 9.1 earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The waves reached heights of 30 meters in some places.

Lessons learned:

Early warning systems are critical.
Public education about tsunami safety saves lives.
Coastal planning must consider tsunami risk zones.

Impact of Tsunami on Human Life & Economy

Tsunamis can cause:

Loss of life – Thousands can be killed in minutes.
Destruction of property – Homes, schools, and hospitals can be wiped out.
Economic loss – Billions lost in tourism, fishing, and infrastructure.
Health risks – Water contamination, injuries, and spread of disease.

Environmental Effects of Tsunamis

Coastal erosion – Beaches and soil washed away.
Saltwater intrusion – Farmland destroyed due to salt deposits.
Marine life impact – Coral reefs and habitats destroyed.
Forest destruction – Coastal mangroves and trees uprooted.

Tsunami-Prone Regions of the World

Areas near tectonic plate boundaries face the highest tsunami risk:

Pacific Ring of Fire – Japan, Indonesia, Chile, Alaska.
Indian Ocean – India, Sri Lanka, Maldives.
Mediterranean Sea – Greece, Italy, Turkey.

Tsunami in India – History & Preparedness

India has faced deadly tsunamis, the worst being 2004. Vulnerable regions include:

Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Eastern Coast – Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha.
Western Coast – Kerala, Maharashtra (low risk).

India now has the Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) in Hyderabad for real-time monitoring.

Early Warning Systems for Tsunami Detection

Modern technology helps detect tsunamis before they hit:

Seismographs – Detect undersea earthquakes.
DART buoys – Measure sea level changes.
Satellite data – Track wave movement.
Alert systems – Send warnings to authorities and the public.

How to Stay Safe During a Tsunami

Move to higher ground immediately after feeling an earthquake.
Follow official warnings and evacuation orders.
Never go near the shore to watch waves.
Keep an emergency kit ready.

Tsunami Disaster Management – National & Global Strategies

Education & drills – Teach coastal residents about safety.
Infrastructure planning – Build tsunami-resistant buildings.
Coastal vegetation – Plant mangroves to reduce wave force.
International cooperation – Share data and warnings quickly.

Science Behind Tsunami Waves – The Ocean in Motion

Tsunamis are shallow-water waves, meaning their speed depends on water depth. In deep ocean, they move fast but with small wave height. Near the shore, their energy compresses, creating giant waves.

Predicting Tsunamis – Models & Technology

Scientists use computer models and seismic data to predict tsunami size, arrival time, and impact areas. However, exact prediction is difficult due to complex ocean behavior.

Role of International Agencies in Tsunami Response

UNESCO-IOC – Coordinates global tsunami warning systems.
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) – Monitors Pacific Ocean activity.
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) – For Indian Ocean nations.

Tsunami Preparedness in Coastal Communities

Communities can reduce risks by:

Creating evacuation routes.
Installing warning sirens.
Conducting public drills regularly.

Tsunami Facts & Figures – Quick GK Notes

Speed: Up to 800 km/h in deep water.
Wave height: Can exceed 30 meters near shore.
Deadliest: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.
Longest reach: Tsunami waves can travel thousands of kilometers.

Difference Between Tsunami, Tidal Wave, and Storm Surge

Tsunami – Caused by underwater disturbances.
Tidal wave – Related to gravitational pull of the moon & sun.
Storm surge – Caused by strong winds during cyclones or hurricanes.

Tsunami Risk Reduction & Climate Change Link

While climate change doesn’t directly cause tsunamis, rising sea levels increase the impact of tsunami waves on coastal cities. Coastal planning and sustainable development are essential to reduce future risks.

Private Sector to Invest ₹77,000 Crore in Thermal Power by FY28: Crisil

In a major development for India’s energy sector, the thermal power industry is set to witness an investment surge of ₹77,000 crore from private sector players between FY26 and FY28, according to a report by Crisil Ratings. This marks a significant shift as private firms like Adani Power, Tata Power, JSW Energy, and Vedanta Power take the lead in strengthening the country’s thermal power capacity, largely through brownfield projects that sidestep land acquisition challenges.

Doubling of Thermal Power Investment

Total investment in the thermal power sector, including both public and private projects, is expected to double to ₹2.3 lakh crore over the next three years.
The private sector’s share, which was earlier limited to just 7–8 per cent, will now rise to nearly one-third of total investments.
This reflects a revival of private interest in coal-based projects after a decade of stagnation.

Factors Driving Private Sector Participation

Long-Term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs)

For the first time in 10 years, four state power distribution companies (Discoms) have signed 25-year PPAs with private thermal producers.
These agreements reduce financial risks for investors.
They ensure stable revenue flows and improve the viability of thermal projects.

Rising Power Demand

India’s power demand is projected to reach 366 GW by 2031–32.
Renewable sources like solar and wind are expected to meet about 70% of this demand, but their intermittency makes thermal power crucial for round-the-clock supply.
The government has announced plans for 80 GW of new coal-based thermal capacity by 2032, of which 60 GW has already been initiated.

Major Private Sector Contributions

Focus on Brownfield Projects

Most of the new capacity will come from brownfield expansions, which,

Avoid land acquisition delays.
Utilize existing infrastructure and pit-head linkages, ensuring faster project execution.

Key Players

Adani Power, Tata Power, JSW Energy, and Vedanta Power are at the forefront of this expansion.
Together, they are investing in projects that combine financial viability with operational efficiency.

Vedanta Power’s Strategic Expansion

Demerger and Growth Plan

Vedanta Power is preparing for a demerger to operate as a standalone entity.
Its long-term plan includes adding 15 GW of capacity, primarily through brownfield projects.

Revival of Existing Portfolios

Reviving a 2,200 MW portfolio, which includes,

1,200 MW at the Chhattisgarh Thermal Power Plant (formerly Athena).
1,000 MW at Meenakshi, both with pit-head advantages and existing linkages.

Financial Viability

Upcoming projects will operate under a tariff structure of ₹5.5–₹5.8 per unit.

The two-part tariff system ensures,

60% fixed charges for stable returns.
The remainder based on cost-plus pricing.
The projects are designed to yield an internal rate of return (IRR) of 15%, making them financially attractive and executable on schedule.

Top-10 Best Countries for Startups in 2025, Check the List

In 2025, the world’s startup scene is more vibrant than ever, with several countries emerging as powerful hubs for innovation and entrepreneurship. From Silicon Valley in the US to growing tech cities in Asia and Europe, these hubs attract talent, funding and big ideas. India has also made its mark, ranking among the top nations shaping the future of global startups and driving new business growth.

A Changing Global Startup Scene

The year 2025 is providing to be an important moment for the global startup world. Growth has slowed to under 21%, showing that the industry is maturing. Still, innovation hubs across the globe continue to compete for the top spots. According to the latest Startup Ecosystem Index, a clear gap exists between the top three countries – United States, United Kingdom and Israel – and the rest of the world.

Top Countries with the Startup Hubs in the World

The United States holds the crown as the leading startup hub. It has 221 cities listed in the world’s top 1,000 for startups. However, its growth rate is slowing, with only 18.2% growth in 2025 – the lowest among the top 50 startup ecosystems.

In second place, the United Kingdom is enjoying one of the highest growth rates among the top 20- 26.3%. The country has widened its lead over Israel, showing that it is becoming a stronger rival to the US in the global startup race.

Israel remains in third place with a 20.6% growth rate. While its growth is stable, it is slower compared to some of its competitors.

Top-10 Best Countries for Startups in 2025

In 2025, the global startup scene is thriving, with certain countries offering the best support, funding and opportunities for new businesses. Here’s look at the top-10 best countries for startups this year.

Rank	Country	Annual Ecosystem Growth	Total Score
1.	United States	+18.2%	254.05
2.	United Kingdom	+26.3%	70.743
3.	Israel	+20.9%	62.167
4.	Singapore	+44.9%	54.682
5.	Canada	+18.8%	45.438
6.	Sweden	+30.7%	35.311
7.	Germany	+28.4%	33.159
8.	France	+30.2%	32.417
9.	Switzerland	+31.8%	31.747
10.	The Netherlands	+26.2%	30.872

India’s Position for Startups in 2025

India has slipped from 19th place in 2024 to 22nd in 2025, one of the biggest drops among the top 25 countries. However, it still holds a strong position with six cities in the global top 100 and is one of only three countries – along with the US and China – to have three cities in the world’s top 20 startup hubs.

How Much 11 PSBs Collected as Penalty for Low Bank Balances In FY21-FY25?

Between FY21 and FY25, eleven public sector banks (PSBs) in India collected nearly ₹9,000 crore as penalty charges from customers who failed to maintain the minimum balance in their savings accounts. The data was shared by the Finance Ministry in the Rajya Sabha, in response to a question by Congress President Mallikarjun Kharge. The move has reignited debate over the fairness of such penalties, especially given their impact on customers in semi-urban and rural areas.

Discontinuation of Minimum Balance Penalties

Key Banks that Ended Charges

The State Bank of India (SBI) had already discontinued average monthly minimum balance charges in March 2020.
Later, Canara Bank, Bank of Baroda, Punjab National Bank, Indian Bank, Bank of India, Central Bank of India, and Union Bank of India followed suit from the second quarter of FY26.
However, private sector banks, which levy higher charges than PSBs, are yet to waive such penalties.

Logic Behind the Penalty

Basis of Charges

Some banks charged customers for failing to maintain a monthly minimum balance, while others imposed penalties on a quarterly basis.

Certain categories of accounts were exempted from maintaining a minimum balance, including,

PM Jan Dhan Accounts
Basic Saving Bank Deposit Accounts (BSBDA)
Salary Accounts
Other special categories

Government’s Stand and Advisory

Finance Ministry’s Statement

In his reply, Minister of State for Finance Pankaj Chaudhary said that the Department of Financial Services (DFS) had advised banks to rationalise penal charges, with particular emphasis on providing relief to customers in semi-urban and rural areas. Seven out of 11 PSBs have implemented this advisory. The remaining four PSBs are expected to follow soon.

RBI Guidelines

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has framed rules regarding the levy of such charges. Banks may fix penal charges as per their Board-approved policies. The charges must be a fixed percentage calculated on the difference between the actual balance and the required minimum balance, as agreed at the time of account opening. RBI also stressed the importance of ensuring fair customer service while imposing such penalties.

Impact on Customers

The imposition of penalties has been controversial,

For urban customers, maintaining minimum balance is often manageable.
However, for customers in semi-urban and rural areas, the fines added an additional financial burden.
The advisory from the DFS and RBI guidelines aim to protect vulnerable customers while ensuring banks recover service costs fairly.

India Records 65,000 Crore Digital Payments Worth ₹12,000 Trillion in Six Years

India’s journey toward becoming a digital economy has seen remarkable progress over the last six years. According to the government, between FY19 and FY25, the country recorded over 65,000 crore digital payment transactions worth ₹12,000 trillion. This surge, primarily driven by the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and targeted policy initiatives, has significantly enhanced financial inclusion by reaching small towns, villages, and underserved communities.

Scale of Digital Transactions

In a written reply to the Lok Sabha, Minister of State for Finance Pankaj Chaudhary highlighted that digital transactions have grown beyond metropolitan areas, bringing millions of vendors and rural users into the formal economy.

65,000 crore transactions recorded from FY19 to FY25.
Transaction value: ₹12,000 trillion.
Reduced reliance on cash, strengthening India’s formal financial ecosystem.

Government and Institutional Efforts

Stakeholders Involved

The expansion of digital payments has been achieved through collaboration between the government, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), fintechs, banks, and state governments. Together, they have rolled out multiple initiatives to ensure wider adoption.

Payments Infrastructure Development Fund (PIDF)

Established by RBI in 2021 to promote digital acceptance infrastructure.
Special focus on small towns, remote areas, the Northeast, and Jammu & Kashmir.
As of May 31, 2025, around 4.77 crore digital touch-points were deployed across the country.

Measuring Digital Adoption: RBI’s Digital Payments Index

To track the extent of digitization, the RBI launched the Digital Payments Index (RBI-DPI), with March 2018 set as the base period (index = 100).
As of September 2024, the RBI-DPI stood at 465.33, reflecting strong growth in digital payment adoption, infrastructure, and performance nationwide.

Support for MSMEs and Small Merchants

The government, along with RBI and NPCI, has rolled out various measures to help small businesses and MSMEs embrace digital payments,

Incentive schemes for low-value BHIM-UPI transactions among small merchants.

Trade Receivables Discounting System (TReDS) guidelines enabling MSMEs to get invoices discounted at competitive rates.
Rationalization of Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) for debit card transactions, reducing costs for small businesses.

Impact on Financial Inclusion

Empowering the Underserved

Digital payments have revolutionized financial access, particularly for unserved and underserved communities. Through platforms like UPI, individuals and small businesses are now able to conduct seamless, traceable, and reliable transactions.

Boosting Access to Credit

Digital transaction histories provide alternative data points for banks and financial institutions. This enables them to assess creditworthiness even for customers without traditional financial documents, helping more people gain access to formal credit channels and integrate into the financial ecosystem.

United Kingdom Set to Recognise Palestinian State

In a significant diplomatic development, UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer has announced that Britain will recognise a Palestinian state if Israel does not take immediate steps to end the ongoing conflict in Gaza. The nearly two-year-long war with Hamas has led to severe humanitarian suffering, with widespread starvation and destruction in Gaza. The announcement marks a potential shift in the UK’s foreign policy toward the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Starmer’s Conditions for Israel

The UK’s recognition of a Palestinian state is tied to a set of conditions that Israel must meet to avoid the move. These include,

Ceasefire in Gaza: Immediate steps to end ongoing military operations.
Halting Annexation Plans: A commitment to stop the annexation of the West Bank.
Peace Process Commitment: Engaging in a meaningful peace process aimed at achieving a two-state solution.
If these conditions are not fulfilled, the UK will proceed with recognition before the upcoming United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) session.

The Humanitarian Crisis in Gaza

The announcement comes against the backdrop of a deepening humanitarian crisis,

Starvation and food shortages are spreading across Gaza.
Civilian casualties continue to rise due to prolonged military operations.
International aid agencies warn of a possible humanitarian collapse if the conflict continues without resolution.

Global Context and International Recognition

The UK’s position aligns with a growing global movement supporting Palestinian statehood.
About 140 countries already formally recognise Palestine as a state.
Recently, France pledged its support for recognition at the same UNGA meeting.
This reflects a rising international consensus on the two-state solution as the only viable path to lasting peace in the region.

Implications for UK Foreign Policy

Starmer’s announcement signals a policy shift that could redefine the UK’s role in the Middle East peace process.
By supporting Palestinian statehood, the UK is increasing diplomatic pressure on Israel to comply with ceasefire demands.
It also reflects Britain’s stance on human rights and humanitarian relief, showing solidarity with Palestinians amid worsening conditions.
However, this decision may strain the UK’s bilateral relations with Israel while strengthening ties with Arab and Muslim-majority nations.